Presidents and Their Cabinets: Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson ran for president a total of three times. The first time he lost, and the second time he almost lost. In the 1796 election he ran as a Democratic-Republican, but finished second in the electoral vote to Federalist John Adams. Under the rules then in place, Jefferson's second-place finish made him the Vice President of the United States and though the two men had once been friends, Jefferson grew increasingly hostile to Adams during that administration. In the next election Jefferson worked closely with Aaron Burr of New York, and ran for the presidency again in 1800. Under the election system in force at the time, the members of the Electoral College were permitted to vote for two names for president. The Democratic-Republicans had planned for one of its electors to abstain from casting his second vote for Burr, which would have given Jefferson one more electoral vote than Burr. The plan was botched and each elector who voted for Jefferson also voted for Burr, resulting in a tied electoral vote. Jefferson and Burr both tied for first with 73 electoral votes. The House of Representatives held a contingent election on February 17, 1801, deciding whether Jefferson or Burr would acceded to the presidency. Jefferson was elected president on the thirty-sixth ballot.
Jefferson's first inauguration took place on March 4, 1801. It was the first to be held in the nation's new capital, Washington, D.C. Jefferson gave a copy of his speech to the National Intelligencer for it to be published and available right after delivery. He gave a 1721 word speech in the United States Capitol's Senate Chamber, but was not a strong speaker, and the audience could barely hear his words. In the speech he called for national unity, but it was seen as disingenuous by outgoing President John Adams, who had left the capital earlier that day, and did not attend the ceremony.
As selecting cabinets was something new in those days, it took until July of 1801, Jefferson had assembled his own Cabinet. There were only five cabinet posts at the time, and four departments. (The Attorney-General sat at the cabinet table as an advisor to the president, but did not yet have his own department.)
For Secretary of State, Jefferson picked James Madison, a loyal supporter and a fellow Virginian. Jefferson wanted to ensure that he controlled his administration's foreign policy, and he selected the Madison for the post despite Madison's lack of foreign policy experience. Along with Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, Madison became one of the two major influences in Jefferson's cabinet. The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in France had dulled Democratic-Republican enthusiasm for the French cause, and with Jefferson's approval, Madison tried to steer a neutral position in the ongoing Coalition Wars between France and Britain.
For Secretary of the Treasury, Jefferson picked the Swiss-born Albert Gallatin from Pennsylvania. Gallatin, like Jefferson, was an opponent of Alexander Hamilton's economic policies. Gallatin was a master of public finance and Jefferson ignored criticisms from Federalists that Gallatin was a "foreigner" with a French accent. Under Jefferson and James Madison, Gallatin served as secretary from 1801 until February 1814. In the end, Gallatin retained much of Hamilton's financial system. He also presided over a reduction in the national debt prior to the War of 1812.
Jefferson's selection for Secretary of War was Henry Dearborn of Massachusetts, who had served with distinction in the Revolutionary War. He had served in George Washington's Continental Army, and was present at the British surrender at Yorktown. Dearborn served on General Washington's staff in Virginia and would later serve as a commanding general in the War of 1812. Dearborn advised Jefferson in matters of military personnel when Jefferson was formulating the Military Peace Establishment Act in 1800-01, which outlined a new set of laws and limits for the military. The law also led to the founding of a national military academy at West Point. He helped Jefferson set policy on Native Americans.
As Attorney General, Jefferson picked Levi Lincoln Sr., a lawyer and statesman from Massachusetts. He played a significant role in the events that led to the celebrated Marbury v. Madison court case. In addition to law, he also advised Jefferson on the politics of New England, and was influential in the distribution of patronage in the region. He served on a commission that resolved claims emanating from the Yazoo land scandal in Georgia, and advised Jefferson on matters related to the Louisiana Purchase.
The final member of Jefferson's initial cabinet was Secretary of the Navy Robert Smith. He was born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania and later moved to Maryland where he was active in Democratic-Republican politics. During the American Revolutionary War, he served in the Continental Army and fought in the Battle of Brandywine. He graduated from Princeton in 1781 and began to practice law in Maryland. Jefferson appointed him as Secretary of the Navy in July 1801 after William Jones of South Carolina declined the position. For a time Smith held both the post of Attorney General and Secretary of the Navy. Smith finally left the office of Secretary of the Navy with the end of President Jefferson's administration on March 4, 1809. Jefferson's successor, President James Madison, then appointed Smith as Secretary of State, an office which he held from March 6, 1809, until his forced resignation on April 1, 1811.
After his decision to pursue the presidency in the contingent election, Aaron Burr was excluded from any role in the Jefferson administration. Jefferson sought to make collective decisions with his Cabinet, and it is said that Jefferson asked each cabinet member his opinion before Jefferson made major decisions. Gallatin and Madison were particularly influential within Jefferson's cabinet and served as Jefferson's key lieutenants.
When Adams took office in 1796, he carried many of Washington's supporters over into his new administration. As a result, there was little change in the federal government when the first national transition of power occurred. With Jefferson's election in 1800, there was a transfer of power between parties, not simply a transition. As president, Jefferson had the power of appointment to fill many government positions that had long been held by Federalists. It was widely anticipated that this use of patronage was the privilege of a new party when it assumed power. Jefferson was reluctant to remove all Federalists from their appointed positions and began with replacing only the top government officials, including the cabinet, while also replacing any lower-ranking Federalist appointees who engaged in misconduct or partisan behavior. Jefferson's refusal to call for a complete replacement of federal appointees under the spoils system was followed by his successors until the election of Andrew Jackson in 1828.
Jefferson's first inauguration took place on March 4, 1801. It was the first to be held in the nation's new capital, Washington, D.C. Jefferson gave a copy of his speech to the National Intelligencer for it to be published and available right after delivery. He gave a 1721 word speech in the United States Capitol's Senate Chamber, but was not a strong speaker, and the audience could barely hear his words. In the speech he called for national unity, but it was seen as disingenuous by outgoing President John Adams, who had left the capital earlier that day, and did not attend the ceremony.
As selecting cabinets was something new in those days, it took until July of 1801, Jefferson had assembled his own Cabinet. There were only five cabinet posts at the time, and four departments. (The Attorney-General sat at the cabinet table as an advisor to the president, but did not yet have his own department.)
For Secretary of State, Jefferson picked James Madison, a loyal supporter and a fellow Virginian. Jefferson wanted to ensure that he controlled his administration's foreign policy, and he selected the Madison for the post despite Madison's lack of foreign policy experience. Along with Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, Madison became one of the two major influences in Jefferson's cabinet. The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in France had dulled Democratic-Republican enthusiasm for the French cause, and with Jefferson's approval, Madison tried to steer a neutral position in the ongoing Coalition Wars between France and Britain.
For Secretary of the Treasury, Jefferson picked the Swiss-born Albert Gallatin from Pennsylvania. Gallatin, like Jefferson, was an opponent of Alexander Hamilton's economic policies. Gallatin was a master of public finance and Jefferson ignored criticisms from Federalists that Gallatin was a "foreigner" with a French accent. Under Jefferson and James Madison, Gallatin served as secretary from 1801 until February 1814. In the end, Gallatin retained much of Hamilton's financial system. He also presided over a reduction in the national debt prior to the War of 1812.
Jefferson's selection for Secretary of War was Henry Dearborn of Massachusetts, who had served with distinction in the Revolutionary War. He had served in George Washington's Continental Army, and was present at the British surrender at Yorktown. Dearborn served on General Washington's staff in Virginia and would later serve as a commanding general in the War of 1812. Dearborn advised Jefferson in matters of military personnel when Jefferson was formulating the Military Peace Establishment Act in 1800-01, which outlined a new set of laws and limits for the military. The law also led to the founding of a national military academy at West Point. He helped Jefferson set policy on Native Americans.
As Attorney General, Jefferson picked Levi Lincoln Sr., a lawyer and statesman from Massachusetts. He played a significant role in the events that led to the celebrated Marbury v. Madison court case. In addition to law, he also advised Jefferson on the politics of New England, and was influential in the distribution of patronage in the region. He served on a commission that resolved claims emanating from the Yazoo land scandal in Georgia, and advised Jefferson on matters related to the Louisiana Purchase.
The final member of Jefferson's initial cabinet was Secretary of the Navy Robert Smith. He was born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania and later moved to Maryland where he was active in Democratic-Republican politics. During the American Revolutionary War, he served in the Continental Army and fought in the Battle of Brandywine. He graduated from Princeton in 1781 and began to practice law in Maryland. Jefferson appointed him as Secretary of the Navy in July 1801 after William Jones of South Carolina declined the position. For a time Smith held both the post of Attorney General and Secretary of the Navy. Smith finally left the office of Secretary of the Navy with the end of President Jefferson's administration on March 4, 1809. Jefferson's successor, President James Madison, then appointed Smith as Secretary of State, an office which he held from March 6, 1809, until his forced resignation on April 1, 1811.
After his decision to pursue the presidency in the contingent election, Aaron Burr was excluded from any role in the Jefferson administration. Jefferson sought to make collective decisions with his Cabinet, and it is said that Jefferson asked each cabinet member his opinion before Jefferson made major decisions. Gallatin and Madison were particularly influential within Jefferson's cabinet and served as Jefferson's key lieutenants.
When Adams took office in 1796, he carried many of Washington's supporters over into his new administration. As a result, there was little change in the federal government when the first national transition of power occurred. With Jefferson's election in 1800, there was a transfer of power between parties, not simply a transition. As president, Jefferson had the power of appointment to fill many government positions that had long been held by Federalists. It was widely anticipated that this use of patronage was the privilege of a new party when it assumed power. Jefferson was reluctant to remove all Federalists from their appointed positions and began with replacing only the top government officials, including the cabinet, while also replacing any lower-ranking Federalist appointees who engaged in misconduct or partisan behavior. Jefferson's refusal to call for a complete replacement of federal appointees under the spoils system was followed by his successors until the election of Andrew Jackson in 1828.