Presidents and Their Cabinets: John Adams
The presidential election of 1796 was the third one held, but the first to be contested. George Washington had been elected to office unanimously in the first two presidential elections. During his presidency, deep divisions developed between the two leading figures in the administration: Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Their competing visions in both domestic and foreign policy caused a schism within the administration, and led to something that George Washington did not want to have happen - factionalism. The first two political parties were formed. Hamilton led the Federalist Party and Jefferson led the Democratic-Republican Party. When Washington announced that he would not be a candidate for a third term, an intense partisan struggle for control of Congress and the presidency followed.
In 1796 the Constitution called for the selection of electors who would then elect a president. In seven states voters chose the presidential electors and in the remaining nine states, they were chosen by the state's legislature. The Democratic-Republicans chose Jefferson as their candidate. Hamilton had been born in the British Leeward Islands and had other factors that made him unelectable. Vice-President John Adams was the choice of the majority of the Federalists.
The Democratic-Republicans in Congress held a nominating caucus and named Jefferson and Aaron Burr as their two presidential choices. Jefferson declined the nomination at first, but agreed to run a few weeks later. Federalist members of Congress held an informal nominating caucus and named Adams and Thomas Pinckney as their candidates for president.
The campaign was in the form of newspaper articles by pro- and anti-candidate newspapers, pamphlets and political rallies. Of the four contenders, only Burr actively campaigned. The intention was for one party's candidate to receive slightly more electors than the second, with the candidate with the most electors becoming president, and the candidate in second place becoming Vice-President.
In early November, France's ambassador to the U.S., Pierre Adet published statements anti-British statements which suggested that a Jefferson victory would result in improved relations with France. Alexander Hamilton added further mischief-making when he lobbied for the election to Pinckney by trying to convince South Carolina's Federalist electors to vote for "favorite son" Pinckney and to scatter their second votes among candidates other than Adams. When several New England state electors learned of Hamilton's scheme, they decideded not to vote for Pinckney.
Each presidential elector cast two votes for president. Electors were not allowed to cast both votes for the same person. The Constitution prescribed that the person receiving the most votes would become president, provided that they won votes from a majority of the electors, while the person with the second most electoral votes would become vice president. The votes of the 138 members of the Electoral College were counted during a Joint Session of Congress on February 8, 1797. The top three vote getters were Adams with 71 votes, Jefferson with 69, and Pinckney with 59. The balance of the votes were dispersed among Burr and nine other candidates.
Adams was President of the Senate, and it was his duty to announce himself as President-elect, and his main opponent, Jefferson, as the next vice president. The following week he delivered an emotional farewell speech to the Senate, over which he had presided over for the past eight years. This was the only election to date in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing parties. T
Adams was inaugurated as the nation's second president on March 4, 1797 in the House of Representatives Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia. Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth administered the Oath of office. Adams was the first president to receive the oath from a Supreme Court chief justice. His inaugural address contained an eloquent tribute to George Washington, followed by a call for political unity. Adams also expressed his desire to avoid war.
The Constitution gave little instruction about the cabinet. It referred to the operation of executive branch agencies. The Constitution made it clear that the persons appointed to lead these agencies had to answer to the president, but it was silent on who could terminate these appointments: the president or Congress. There was no precedent regarding the continued service of the previous president's cabinet members. In hindsight, Adams should have taken the opportunity to appoint a loyal group of advisors. Instead, he retained Washington's cabinet, even though none of them were close to him.
Three members of the Cabinet were loyal to Hamilton. These were Secretary of State Timothy Pickering, Secretary of War James McHenry, and Treasury Secretary Oliver Wolcott Jr. They sought Hamilton's opinion on major policy questions, even though Hamilton no longer held any position in government. The recommendations they presented to the president were really Hamilton's, and where Adams and Hamilton differed on issues, these three often actively worked to undermine Adams's proposals. In May 1797, Thomas Jefferson wrote of Adams' cabinet, "The Hamiltonians by whom he is surrounded are only a little less hostile to him than to me."
The remaining two cabinet members were Attorney-General Charles Lee and Navy Secretary Benjamin Stoddart.
It became apparent to Adams that Hamilton was manipulating things from behind the scenes. Near the end of his term in 1800, Adams finally dismissed Pickering and McHenry, replacing them with John Marshall and Samuel Dexter, respectively. Wolcott remained in office, but resigned on the last day of 1800 due to his growing unpopularity.
By then however, Hamilton had undermined Adams to the point where his re-election was unlikely. It was difficult for Adams to fend off attacks from the Federalist Hamilton and his opponent Jefferson. With the Federalist Party deeply split over the issue of relations with France, and the opposition Democratic-Republicans enraged over the Alien and Sedition Acts and the expansion of the military, Adams faced an extremely difficult reelection campaign in 1800. He remained very popular in New England, a key region for any Federalist presidential campaign. In the spring of 1800, Federalist members of Congress nominated Adams and Charles C. Pinckney for the presidency. The Democratic-Republicans once again nominated Jefferson and Burr, their candidates in the previous election, designating Jefferson as the party’s first choice.
The campaign was bitter and characterized by malicious personal attacks. Federalists spread rumors that the Democratic-Republicans were radicals who would adopt a revolutionary style government like that of France. Democratic-Republicans in turn accused Federalists of subverting republican principles through punitive federal laws, and of favoring Britain and its aristocratic, anti-democratic values. Hamilton and his supporters continued to try to sabotage Adams' reelection. In October, Hamilton published a pamphlet in which he accused Adams of being "emotionally unstable, given to impulsive and irrational decisions, unable to coexist with his closest advisers, and generally unfit to be president." He tried to persuade Federalist presidential electors in New England to withhold their vote from Adams, in favor of Pinckney.
When the electoral votes were counted, Adams finished in third place with 65 votes, and Pinckney came in fourth with 64 votes. Jefferson and Burr tied for first place with 73 votes each. Because of the tie, the election was decided by the House of Representatives. As specified by the Constitution, each state's delegation voted en bloc, with each state having a single vote; an absolute majority (nine, as there were 16 states at the time) was required for victory. On February 17, 1801—following the 36th ballot—Jefferson was elected by a vote of 10 to 4 (two states abstained). The transfer of presidential power between Adams and Jefferson represented the first such transfer between two different political parties in U.S. history, and set the precedent for all subsequent presidents from all political parties
In 1796 the Constitution called for the selection of electors who would then elect a president. In seven states voters chose the presidential electors and in the remaining nine states, they were chosen by the state's legislature. The Democratic-Republicans chose Jefferson as their candidate. Hamilton had been born in the British Leeward Islands and had other factors that made him unelectable. Vice-President John Adams was the choice of the majority of the Federalists.
The Democratic-Republicans in Congress held a nominating caucus and named Jefferson and Aaron Burr as their two presidential choices. Jefferson declined the nomination at first, but agreed to run a few weeks later. Federalist members of Congress held an informal nominating caucus and named Adams and Thomas Pinckney as their candidates for president.
The campaign was in the form of newspaper articles by pro- and anti-candidate newspapers, pamphlets and political rallies. Of the four contenders, only Burr actively campaigned. The intention was for one party's candidate to receive slightly more electors than the second, with the candidate with the most electors becoming president, and the candidate in second place becoming Vice-President.
In early November, France's ambassador to the U.S., Pierre Adet published statements anti-British statements which suggested that a Jefferson victory would result in improved relations with France. Alexander Hamilton added further mischief-making when he lobbied for the election to Pinckney by trying to convince South Carolina's Federalist electors to vote for "favorite son" Pinckney and to scatter their second votes among candidates other than Adams. When several New England state electors learned of Hamilton's scheme, they decideded not to vote for Pinckney.
Each presidential elector cast two votes for president. Electors were not allowed to cast both votes for the same person. The Constitution prescribed that the person receiving the most votes would become president, provided that they won votes from a majority of the electors, while the person with the second most electoral votes would become vice president. The votes of the 138 members of the Electoral College were counted during a Joint Session of Congress on February 8, 1797. The top three vote getters were Adams with 71 votes, Jefferson with 69, and Pinckney with 59. The balance of the votes were dispersed among Burr and nine other candidates.
Adams was President of the Senate, and it was his duty to announce himself as President-elect, and his main opponent, Jefferson, as the next vice president. The following week he delivered an emotional farewell speech to the Senate, over which he had presided over for the past eight years. This was the only election to date in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing parties. T
Adams was inaugurated as the nation's second president on March 4, 1797 in the House of Representatives Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia. Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth administered the Oath of office. Adams was the first president to receive the oath from a Supreme Court chief justice. His inaugural address contained an eloquent tribute to George Washington, followed by a call for political unity. Adams also expressed his desire to avoid war.
The Constitution gave little instruction about the cabinet. It referred to the operation of executive branch agencies. The Constitution made it clear that the persons appointed to lead these agencies had to answer to the president, but it was silent on who could terminate these appointments: the president or Congress. There was no precedent regarding the continued service of the previous president's cabinet members. In hindsight, Adams should have taken the opportunity to appoint a loyal group of advisors. Instead, he retained Washington's cabinet, even though none of them were close to him.
Three members of the Cabinet were loyal to Hamilton. These were Secretary of State Timothy Pickering, Secretary of War James McHenry, and Treasury Secretary Oliver Wolcott Jr. They sought Hamilton's opinion on major policy questions, even though Hamilton no longer held any position in government. The recommendations they presented to the president were really Hamilton's, and where Adams and Hamilton differed on issues, these three often actively worked to undermine Adams's proposals. In May 1797, Thomas Jefferson wrote of Adams' cabinet, "The Hamiltonians by whom he is surrounded are only a little less hostile to him than to me."
The remaining two cabinet members were Attorney-General Charles Lee and Navy Secretary Benjamin Stoddart.
It became apparent to Adams that Hamilton was manipulating things from behind the scenes. Near the end of his term in 1800, Adams finally dismissed Pickering and McHenry, replacing them with John Marshall and Samuel Dexter, respectively. Wolcott remained in office, but resigned on the last day of 1800 due to his growing unpopularity.
By then however, Hamilton had undermined Adams to the point where his re-election was unlikely. It was difficult for Adams to fend off attacks from the Federalist Hamilton and his opponent Jefferson. With the Federalist Party deeply split over the issue of relations with France, and the opposition Democratic-Republicans enraged over the Alien and Sedition Acts and the expansion of the military, Adams faced an extremely difficult reelection campaign in 1800. He remained very popular in New England, a key region for any Federalist presidential campaign. In the spring of 1800, Federalist members of Congress nominated Adams and Charles C. Pinckney for the presidency. The Democratic-Republicans once again nominated Jefferson and Burr, their candidates in the previous election, designating Jefferson as the party’s first choice.
The campaign was bitter and characterized by malicious personal attacks. Federalists spread rumors that the Democratic-Republicans were radicals who would adopt a revolutionary style government like that of France. Democratic-Republicans in turn accused Federalists of subverting republican principles through punitive federal laws, and of favoring Britain and its aristocratic, anti-democratic values. Hamilton and his supporters continued to try to sabotage Adams' reelection. In October, Hamilton published a pamphlet in which he accused Adams of being "emotionally unstable, given to impulsive and irrational decisions, unable to coexist with his closest advisers, and generally unfit to be president." He tried to persuade Federalist presidential electors in New England to withhold their vote from Adams, in favor of Pinckney.
When the electoral votes were counted, Adams finished in third place with 65 votes, and Pinckney came in fourth with 64 votes. Jefferson and Burr tied for first place with 73 votes each. Because of the tie, the election was decided by the House of Representatives. As specified by the Constitution, each state's delegation voted en bloc, with each state having a single vote; an absolute majority (nine, as there were 16 states at the time) was required for victory. On February 17, 1801—following the 36th ballot—Jefferson was elected by a vote of 10 to 4 (two states abstained). The transfer of presidential power between Adams and Jefferson represented the first such transfer between two different political parties in U.S. history, and set the precedent for all subsequent presidents from all political parties