Presidents and their Cabinet: George Washington
The Philadelphia Constitutional Convention of 1787 took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in the old Pennsylvania State House, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The building would later become known as Independence Hall because it was there that the Declaration of Independence had been adopted eleven years earlier. The Convention was intended to revise the first system of government that had been put in place under the Articles of Confederation, but from the outset, many of those attending, including James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new form of government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington of Virginia, former commanding general of the Continental Army in the late American Revolutionary War, to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the creation of the Constitution of the United States.
After the Convention, a very tired George Washington returned to his estate in Virginia, Mount Vernon, intent on resuming his retirement and letting others govern the new nation. But the public at large wanted Washington to be the nation's first president. Many consider the first U.S. presidential campaign to have been a grassroots effort to convince Washington to take the job. Letters poured into Mount Vernon, many from those who had served under him in the recent war, begging him to accept the position. Gouverneur Morris wrote to Washington, stating: "Thirteen horses are now about to be coupled together. There are some of every race and character. They will listen to your voice and submit to your control. You therefore must, I say must mount this seat." The comte de Rochambeau and the Marquis de Lafayette both wrote letters, urging Washington to accept.
In an August 1788 letter setting out how he felt about all of this, Washington wrote:
"I should unfeignedly rejoice, in case the Electors, by giving their votes to another person would save me from the dreaded dilemma of being forced to accept or refuse. If that may not be–I am, in the next place, earnestly desirous of searching out the truth, and knowing whether there does not exist a probability that the government would be just as happily and effectually carried into execution without my aid."
The Constitution stipulated that the position of Vice-President would be awarded to the runner-up in the presidential election, or the person with the second highest amount of electoral votes. Because Washington was from Virginia, the consensus was that a vice president would be chosen from one of the northern states to ease sectional tensions. In an August 1788 letter, Thomas Jefferson wrote that he considered John Adams and John Hancock, both prominent citizens from Massachusetts, to be the top contenders. In January 1789, upon hearing that Adams would probably win the vice presidency, Washington wrote to Henry Knox, saying that he was "entirely satisfied with the arrangement for filling the second office."
Each state's presidential electors gathered in their state's capital on February 4, 1789, to cast their votes for the president. The election occurred prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment, so at that time, each elector cast two votes for the presidency, though the electors were not allowed to cast both votes for the same person. Under the terms of the constitution, the individual who won the most electoral votes would become president while the individual with the second-most electoral votes would become vice president. Each state's votes were sealed and delivered to Congress to be counted.
Washington had declared his willingness to serve. On April 6, 1789, the House and Senate, meeting in joint session, counted the electoral votes and certified that Washington had been elected President of the United States with 69 electoral votes. They also certified that Adams, with 34 electoral votes, had been elected as Vice President. The other 35 electoral votes were divided among: John Jay (9), Robert H. Harrison (6), John Rutledge (6), John Hancock (4), George Clinton (3), Samuel Huntington (2), John Milton (2), James Armstrong (1), Benjamin Lincoln (1), and Edward Telfair (1).
Washington learned of his election on April 14, 1789. He wrote in a letter to Edward Rutledge that he would accept the job, but that the was giving up "all expectations of private happiness in this world." The first presidential term and the first vice presidential term both officially started on March 4, 1789, the date set by the Congress of the Confederation for the beginning of operations of the federal government under the new U.S. Constitution.But because of the difficulties of long-distance travel in 18th century America, they did not begin their jobs until several weeks later. The House of Representatives and the Senate convened on the prescribed date, but both adjourned due to lack of a quorum. The presidential electoral votes could not be counted or certified. The House would not achieve a quorum until April 1, and the Senate on April 6. John Adams arrived in New York a few days before Washington, and first presided over the Senate on April 21. Washington was inaugurated as the first President of the United States on April 30, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York, then the nation's capitol. The presidential oath of office was administered by Chancellor Robert Livingston, the highest judicial officer in the state of New York. Washington took the oath on the building's second floor balcony. After the oath was administered, Livingston shouted "Long live George Washington, President of the United States!"
The new Constitution empowered the president to appoint executive department heads with the consent of the Senate. Three departments had existed under the Articles of Confederation: the Department of War, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Finance Office. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was reestablished on July 27, 1789, and would be renamed to the Department of State in September. The Department of War was retained on August 7. The Finance office would be renamed the Department of the Treasury on September 2.
Congress also considered establishing a Home Department to oversee Native American affairs and the preservation of government documents, but these duties were absorbed into the State Department. In September 1789, Congress established the positions of Attorney General, to serve as the chief legal adviser to the president; and Postmaster General, to serve as the head of the postal service.
Initially, Washington met individually with the leaders of the executive departments and the Attorney General, but he began to hold joint meetings in 1791, with the first meeting occurring on November 26. The four positions of Secretary of War, Secretary of State, Secretary of Treasury, and Attorney General became collectively known as the cabinet. Washington held regular cabinet meetings throughout his second term. The Vice-President did not attend Washington's Cabinet meetings.
Edmund Randolph became the first Attorney General, while Henry Knox retained the position as head of the Department of War, which he had held under the old system of government. Washington initially offered the position of Secretary of State to John Jay, who had served as the Secretary of Foreign Affairs since 1784. Jay had acted as the interim Secretary of State. But Jay expressed his preference for a judicial appointment. Washington selected Thomas Jefferson as the first permanent Secretary of State.
For the key post of Secretary of the Treasury, which would oversee economic policy, Washington chose Alexander Hamilton, after his first choice, Robert Morris, declined. Morris had recommended Hamilton instead. Morris wrote to Washington, "My dear general, you will be no loser by my declining the secretaryship of the Treasury, for I can recommend a far cleverer fellow than I am for your minister of finance in the person of your aide-de-camp, Colonel Hamilton."
Washington's initial cabinet achieved somewhat of a regional balance. It consisted of one individual from New England (Knox), one individual from New York (Hamilton), and two Southerners (Jefferson and Randolph). Washington already had considerable experience in both Foreign affairs and in War, and often relied on his own counsel in those fields. Washington was given broad powers for removing officials in the executive branch. Congress passed a bill sponsored by James Madison that gave the President the power to remove public officials. In 1789, Vice President John Adams cast the deciding vote in the Senate against a bill that would have mandated senatorial consent for the removal of Senate-confirmed federal and cabinet appointments.
Washington set the agenda for cabinet discussions and occasionally requested cabinet opinions in writing. Washington's cabinet members were known for their factionalism, which led to their forming rival parties, much to Washington's displeasure. The most fierce rivalry within the cabinet was that between Hamilton and Jefferson. Their deep philosophical differences set them against each other and they frequently held opposing views about economic and foreign policy issues. Jefferson described his relationship with Hamilton as being "daily pitted, like two cocks." Knox tended to side with Hamilton, while Randolph tried to remain neutral but more often agreed with Jefferson, his fellow Virginian.
Jefferson left the cabinet at the end of 1793. He was replaced by Randolph, while William Bradford took over as Attorney General. With Jefferson's departure, Hamilton came to dominate the cabinet. Washington looked to him for advice even after Hamilton resigned from the cabinet. Randolph held very little influence in the cabinet and was not held in high regard by Washington. Knox left the cabinet in 1794, and was replaced by Timothy Pickering. Hamilton left the cabinet in 1795, as did Randolph. When they left, Oliver Wolcott became Secretary of the Treasury, and Pickering succeeded Randolph as Secretary of State. James McHenry replaced Pickering as Secretary of War, while Charles Lee became Attorney General after the departure of Bradford.
When Washington left office, he published he farewell address, which stressed the necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution and the rule of law, and of the evils of political parties. He called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good.
After the Convention, a very tired George Washington returned to his estate in Virginia, Mount Vernon, intent on resuming his retirement and letting others govern the new nation. But the public at large wanted Washington to be the nation's first president. Many consider the first U.S. presidential campaign to have been a grassroots effort to convince Washington to take the job. Letters poured into Mount Vernon, many from those who had served under him in the recent war, begging him to accept the position. Gouverneur Morris wrote to Washington, stating: "Thirteen horses are now about to be coupled together. There are some of every race and character. They will listen to your voice and submit to your control. You therefore must, I say must mount this seat." The comte de Rochambeau and the Marquis de Lafayette both wrote letters, urging Washington to accept.
In an August 1788 letter setting out how he felt about all of this, Washington wrote:
"I should unfeignedly rejoice, in case the Electors, by giving their votes to another person would save me from the dreaded dilemma of being forced to accept or refuse. If that may not be–I am, in the next place, earnestly desirous of searching out the truth, and knowing whether there does not exist a probability that the government would be just as happily and effectually carried into execution without my aid."
The Constitution stipulated that the position of Vice-President would be awarded to the runner-up in the presidential election, or the person with the second highest amount of electoral votes. Because Washington was from Virginia, the consensus was that a vice president would be chosen from one of the northern states to ease sectional tensions. In an August 1788 letter, Thomas Jefferson wrote that he considered John Adams and John Hancock, both prominent citizens from Massachusetts, to be the top contenders. In January 1789, upon hearing that Adams would probably win the vice presidency, Washington wrote to Henry Knox, saying that he was "entirely satisfied with the arrangement for filling the second office."
Each state's presidential electors gathered in their state's capital on February 4, 1789, to cast their votes for the president. The election occurred prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment, so at that time, each elector cast two votes for the presidency, though the electors were not allowed to cast both votes for the same person. Under the terms of the constitution, the individual who won the most electoral votes would become president while the individual with the second-most electoral votes would become vice president. Each state's votes were sealed and delivered to Congress to be counted.
Washington had declared his willingness to serve. On April 6, 1789, the House and Senate, meeting in joint session, counted the electoral votes and certified that Washington had been elected President of the United States with 69 electoral votes. They also certified that Adams, with 34 electoral votes, had been elected as Vice President. The other 35 electoral votes were divided among: John Jay (9), Robert H. Harrison (6), John Rutledge (6), John Hancock (4), George Clinton (3), Samuel Huntington (2), John Milton (2), James Armstrong (1), Benjamin Lincoln (1), and Edward Telfair (1).
Washington learned of his election on April 14, 1789. He wrote in a letter to Edward Rutledge that he would accept the job, but that the was giving up "all expectations of private happiness in this world." The first presidential term and the first vice presidential term both officially started on March 4, 1789, the date set by the Congress of the Confederation for the beginning of operations of the federal government under the new U.S. Constitution.But because of the difficulties of long-distance travel in 18th century America, they did not begin their jobs until several weeks later. The House of Representatives and the Senate convened on the prescribed date, but both adjourned due to lack of a quorum. The presidential electoral votes could not be counted or certified. The House would not achieve a quorum until April 1, and the Senate on April 6. John Adams arrived in New York a few days before Washington, and first presided over the Senate on April 21. Washington was inaugurated as the first President of the United States on April 30, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York, then the nation's capitol. The presidential oath of office was administered by Chancellor Robert Livingston, the highest judicial officer in the state of New York. Washington took the oath on the building's second floor balcony. After the oath was administered, Livingston shouted "Long live George Washington, President of the United States!"
The new Constitution empowered the president to appoint executive department heads with the consent of the Senate. Three departments had existed under the Articles of Confederation: the Department of War, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Finance Office. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was reestablished on July 27, 1789, and would be renamed to the Department of State in September. The Department of War was retained on August 7. The Finance office would be renamed the Department of the Treasury on September 2.
Congress also considered establishing a Home Department to oversee Native American affairs and the preservation of government documents, but these duties were absorbed into the State Department. In September 1789, Congress established the positions of Attorney General, to serve as the chief legal adviser to the president; and Postmaster General, to serve as the head of the postal service.
Initially, Washington met individually with the leaders of the executive departments and the Attorney General, but he began to hold joint meetings in 1791, with the first meeting occurring on November 26. The four positions of Secretary of War, Secretary of State, Secretary of Treasury, and Attorney General became collectively known as the cabinet. Washington held regular cabinet meetings throughout his second term. The Vice-President did not attend Washington's Cabinet meetings.
Edmund Randolph became the first Attorney General, while Henry Knox retained the position as head of the Department of War, which he had held under the old system of government. Washington initially offered the position of Secretary of State to John Jay, who had served as the Secretary of Foreign Affairs since 1784. Jay had acted as the interim Secretary of State. But Jay expressed his preference for a judicial appointment. Washington selected Thomas Jefferson as the first permanent Secretary of State.
For the key post of Secretary of the Treasury, which would oversee economic policy, Washington chose Alexander Hamilton, after his first choice, Robert Morris, declined. Morris had recommended Hamilton instead. Morris wrote to Washington, "My dear general, you will be no loser by my declining the secretaryship of the Treasury, for I can recommend a far cleverer fellow than I am for your minister of finance in the person of your aide-de-camp, Colonel Hamilton."
Washington's initial cabinet achieved somewhat of a regional balance. It consisted of one individual from New England (Knox), one individual from New York (Hamilton), and two Southerners (Jefferson and Randolph). Washington already had considerable experience in both Foreign affairs and in War, and often relied on his own counsel in those fields. Washington was given broad powers for removing officials in the executive branch. Congress passed a bill sponsored by James Madison that gave the President the power to remove public officials. In 1789, Vice President John Adams cast the deciding vote in the Senate against a bill that would have mandated senatorial consent for the removal of Senate-confirmed federal and cabinet appointments.
Washington set the agenda for cabinet discussions and occasionally requested cabinet opinions in writing. Washington's cabinet members were known for their factionalism, which led to their forming rival parties, much to Washington's displeasure. The most fierce rivalry within the cabinet was that between Hamilton and Jefferson. Their deep philosophical differences set them against each other and they frequently held opposing views about economic and foreign policy issues. Jefferson described his relationship with Hamilton as being "daily pitted, like two cocks." Knox tended to side with Hamilton, while Randolph tried to remain neutral but more often agreed with Jefferson, his fellow Virginian.
Jefferson left the cabinet at the end of 1793. He was replaced by Randolph, while William Bradford took over as Attorney General. With Jefferson's departure, Hamilton came to dominate the cabinet. Washington looked to him for advice even after Hamilton resigned from the cabinet. Randolph held very little influence in the cabinet and was not held in high regard by Washington. Knox left the cabinet in 1794, and was replaced by Timothy Pickering. Hamilton left the cabinet in 1795, as did Randolph. When they left, Oliver Wolcott became Secretary of the Treasury, and Pickering succeeded Randolph as Secretary of State. James McHenry replaced Pickering as Secretary of War, while Charles Lee became Attorney General after the departure of Bradford.
When Washington left office, he published he farewell address, which stressed the necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution and the rule of law, and of the evils of political parties. He called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good.