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Washington reluctantly attended the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787 as a delegate from Virginia. He was held in such high esteem for his leadership during the war that he was unanimously elected as president of the Convention. Washington was highly critical of the Articles of Confederation of the thirteen colonies, because they created a weak central government, leaving the nation an easy target for takeover. He called the Articles "a rope of sand". It was his view that the nation urgently needed a strong federal government. Otherwise the Continental Congress would be too weak to rally the states to provide for the needs of the military, as was clearly demonstrated during the winter at Valley Forge. But while a majority of the nation respected Washington himself, they did not share Washington's views of a strong federal government binding the states together. The prevailing fear was that this would lead to another autocratic entity much like the British Parliament that had previously ruled and taxed the colonies.
At the Continental Congress, Washington did not participate in the debates very much. He cast his vote as a delegate. After the Convention, his participation and support helped to convince many to vote for ratification of the proposed Constitution. He met opposition from fellow Virginian Patrick Henry. The new Constitution was subsequently ratified by all thirteen states.
The Electoral College unanimously elected Washington as the first president in 1789. He was re-elected again in 1792. He remains the only president to receive all of the electoral votes. John Adams received the next highest vote total and was elected vice president. Washington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, taking the first presidential oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall in New York City. The oath was administered by Chancellor Robert R. Livingston. The words were the same then as they are now: "I, George Washington, do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Washington set his first precedent as president when he added the words "so help me God."
The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year, close to $400,000 in today's dollars. Washington initially declined the salary, but at the urging of leaders in Congress, he ultimately accepted the payment to avoid setting a precedent which suggested that the presidency was only open to independently wealthy individuals.
Washington declined long and pretentious titles and chose to be addressed as "Mr. President", rather than the more majestic names proposed by the Senate. Used to decision making at the highest level, Washington proved an able administrator. He established many precedents in the functions of the presidency. These included regular messages to Congress and the cabinet form of government. He consulted with department heads and considered their advice before making a decision. After reluctantly serving a second term, Washington refused to run for a third, establishing. This set the tradition of a president holding office for a maximum of two terms, one that was followed until 1940 when Franklin Roosevelt ran for and won a third term.
During his first term in office, Washington had to contend with a number of major problems, one of which was a lack of unity. North Carolina and Rhode Island had not yet formally joined the Union. There was also the fear of another British invasion. Great Britain refused to relinquish its forts in the American West. The United States Army was very small and the United States Navy did not exist. The new government had a large debt and worthless currency.
It was Congress who created executive departments during Washington's first months in office in 1789. The State Department was created on July 27, the Department of War in early August, and the Treasury Department on September 2. The President also was granted two additional officers without departments: the Attorney General and Postmaster General. In filling his cabinet, Washington sowed the seeds for what became the party system, much to his dismay. He appointed fellow Virginian Thomas Jefferson to be Secretary of State and his former aide-de-camp Alexander Hamilton to head the Treasury Department. Washington's cabinet eventually developed into a consultation and advisory body. Washington was given broad powers for removing officials in the executive branch. Congress passed a bill sponsored by James Madison that gave him the President the power to remove public officials whose appointments mandated Senatorial approval. In 1789, Vice President John Adams cast the deciding vote in the Senate against a bill that would have mandated senatorial consent for the removal of Senate-confirmed federal and cabinet appointments.
Washington was not a member of any political party and hoped that none would be formed. But his closest advisors formed two factions, setting the framework for the future First Party System. Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton had bold plans to establish the national credit and to build a financially powerful nation, and he formed the basis of the Federalist Party. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson was the founder of the Jeffersonian Republicans, and he strenuously opposed Hamilton's agenda. Washington sided Hamilton over Jefferson more often. This led to public criticism from Jefferson's supporters, with the most offending coming from editor Philip Freneau in the Jeffersonian newspaper the National Gazette. Washington considered dismissing Jefferson from the cabinet, but Jefferson ultimately left the cabinet voluntarily. Washington never forgave him and never spoke to him again.
In early 1790, Hamilton devised a plan to establish the creditworthiness of the new government, as well as its permanent location. Congress had previously issued almost $22 million to suppliers in certificates of debt during the war. Under the plan, Congress assumed responsibility for payment of these debts. Revenue was raisee from customs duties and excise taxes. Washington supported the plan and it was largely favored in the North and opposed in the South. Hamilton obtained the approval of the southern states in exchange for an agreement to place the new national capitol on the Potomac River. The national debt increased as a result, but the nation established its good credit. The agreement gave Washington the right to select the specific location on the Potomac River for the seat of the government. He personally oversaw this project and in 1791, the commissioners named the permanent seat of government "The City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia" to honor Washington.
Washington's popularity was hurt in western states in 1791, when Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits. This led to protests in frontier districts, especially Pennsylvania. Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court, but the protests grew into what became known as the Whiskey Rebellion. The federal army was too small to be quell the intense civil disobedience, so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon militias from Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey. The governors sent the troops, and Washington himself took command of them. He later named Henry "Lighthorse Harry" Lee as field commander to lead the troops into the rebellious districts. The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting. This was the first instance of the federal government using military force to exert authority over the states and its citizens. It is also the only time that a sitting U.S. president personally commanded troops in the field, (although Andrew Jackson threatened to do the same thing during the nullification crisis).
In April 1792, the French Revolutionary Wars broke out between Great Britain and France. Although the French had helped the Americans in their war with Britain, Washington proclaimed American neutrality. The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt to America, called "Citizen Genêt" to promote France's interests. He was welcomed enthusiastically. He made the case for providing assistance to France and issued French letters of marque and reprisal to French ships manned by American sailors so that they could capture British merchant ships. Washington denounced the plan and demanded that the French government recall Genêt. This subsequently occurred.
The Jay Treaty was negotiated with Great Britain to normalize trade relations between the signatory nations and to remove the British from western forts, and resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution. John Jay negotiated and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794. Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington retained national respect and gravitas and when he announced his strong support for the treaty, this turned public opinion and was essential in securing ratification in the Senate on June 24, 1795 by the requisite two-thirds majority. As the result of the treaty, the British agreed to depart from their forts around the Great Lakes, and pre-Revolutionary debts were liquidated. The British opened their West Indies colonies to American trade. The treaty delayed war with Great Britain and brought a period of prosperous trade. The treaty angered the French and relations with France deteriorated after the treaty was signed. That problem was left on the desk of Washingon's successor, John Adams.
The last precedent Washington set was that of his Washington's Farewell Address. This was issued as a public letter in 1796 and was drafted primarily by Washington himself with help from Hamilton. It advised the nation about the necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution and the rule of law, the evils of political parties, and the proper virtues of a republican people. Washington famously wrote about how morality was "a necessary spring of popular government".
The address warned against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs. It also warned about the harm that would flow from bitter partisanship in domestic politics. Washington asked his countrymen to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good. He cautioned against "permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world", and said that the United States must concentrate primarily on American interests. He recommended friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in European wars and entering into long-term "entangling" alliances.
Washington retired from the presidency in March 1797 and returned home to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. By 1798, relations with France had deteriorated to the point that war seemed likely. President Adams offered Washington a commission as lieutenant general on July 4, 1798, and as Commander-in-chief of the armies raised or to be raised for service in a prospective war. Washington accepted and served as the senior officer of the United States Army from July 13, 1798 until his death 17 months later. He participated in planning for a Provisional Army, but delegated most of the work to Hamilton, including active leadership of the army. No French army invaded the United States during this period, and Washington did not assume a field command.
George Washington died at his home of Mount Vernon on December 14, 1799 at the age of 67. His legacy was summed up by Congressman Henry "Light-Horse Harry" Lee, his Revolutionary War comrade, who famously eulogized Washington as "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen". Though never formally polled, George Washington likely possessed high approval ratings throughout his presidency.