Presidential Highs and Lows: John Tyler
What would approval ratings look like for antebellum presidents? What would the overall approval rating be for a southern slaveholder who was the first to assume the presidency without ever being elected to the office? Historians have praised John Tyler for setting precedent for what happened when a sitting president dies in office. But did contemporary Americans admire Tyler for his assertion of authority or did they resent him for taking an office that they hadn't elected him to?
William Henry Harrison died on April 4, 1841, a half-hour into the thirty-second day of his presidency. The death of a sitting president was unprecedented and no one was certain what happened next. Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 of the Constitution provided that "In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President". No one was sure exactly what this meant. Did the actual office of president "devolve" upon Vice President Tyler, or just its powers and duties?
Harrison's Cabinet met within an hour of Harrison's death. They decided that Tyler would be the Vice-President acting as President". Tyler disagreed. He asserted that the Constitution gave him full and unqualified powers of office. He had himself sworn in as President, setting what would become the precedent for the orderly transfer of power following a President's death. His oath was administered by Judge William Cranch in Tyler's hotel room. Tyler did not think the oath was necessary, as he had already given the same solemn promise when sworn in as vice president. But he took the oath, believing it would eliminate any doubt about his authority.
Tyler decided to keep the Harrison's cabinet in place. At his first cabinet meeting, Secretary of State Daniel Webster told Tyler that it had been Harrison's practice of making policy by a majority vote. Webster expected Tyler to continue this practice, but he assumed incorrectly. Tyler told his cabinet "I beg your pardon gentlemen. I am very glad to have in my Cabinet such able statesmen as you have proved yourselves to be. And I shall be pleased to avail myself of your counsel and advice. But I can never consent to being dictated to as to what I shall or shall not do. I, as president, shall be responsible for my administration. I hope to have your hearty co-operation in carrying out its measures. So long as you see fit to do this, I shall be glad to have you with me. When you think otherwise, your resignations will be accepted."
Tyler delivered an inaugural address before the Congress on April 9, but his claim to be president was not accepted by many members of Congress, including former President John Quincy Adams. Adams believed that Tyler was a caretaker and should either be called "Acting President", or remain vice president. Henry Clay had planned to be the real power broker in Washington and also considered Tyler to be the "vice-president" and called Tyler's presidency a "regency".Tyler was referred to by many mocking nicknames, including "His Accidency". But he remained firm in his conviction that he was the rightful president. When his political opponents sent correspondence to the White House addressed to the "vice president" or "acting president", Tyler had it returned unopened.
Tyler broke with his party over a major issue of the day, that of the national bank. On two occasions he vetoed Henry Clay's legislation for a national banking act. Tyler proposed an alternative fiscal plan known as the "Exchequer", but this was not acceptable to Clay. On September 11, 1841 after the second bank veto, members of the cabinet entered Tyler's office one by one and resigned, a stunt orchestrated by Clay, who hoped to force Tyler's resignation. Only Daniel Webster remained, because he wanted to finalize what became the 1842 Webster–Ashburton Treaty, and also to demonstrate his independence from Clay. On September 13, when Tyler refused to resign, the Whigs in Congress expelled Tyler from the party. Tyler was certainly very unpopular within his own Party. He was attacked in Whig newspapers and received hundreds of letters threatening his assassination. Whigs in Congress were so angry with Tyler that they refused to allocate funds to fix the White House, which was badly in need of repair.
Congressman John Botts introduced an impeachment resolution on July 10, 1842. It levied several charges against Tyler and called for a nine-member committee to investigate his behavior, hoping for a formal impeachment recommendation. The resolution was tabled until the following January when it was rejected by a vote of 127 to 83. John Quincy Adams sponsored a constitutional amendment to change the requirement for over-riding a presidential veto from two-thirds to a simple majority, but neither house of Congress supported this. In the mid-term election of 1842 the Whigs lost control of the House and this ended their impeachment efforts.
Tyler did enjoy a measure of popularity near the end of his term, at least among southerners, when he was able to orchestrate the annexation of Texas. After his being kicked out of the Whig Party, Tyler saw annexation of the independent republic as his only pathway to win election to the presidency in 1844. He had his ally Thomas Walker Gilmer, then a U.S. Representative from Virginia, publish a letter calling for the annexation of Texas, which was well received. Tyler knew he would need a Secretary of State who supported the Texas initiative. When Daniel Webster's work on the Webster-Ashburton treaty was complete, he obtained Webster's resignation and appointed Hugh S. Legaré of South Carolina as the new Secretary of State. He used patronage appointments gain support for the measure. He appointed journalist Alexander Abell as consul to Hawaii in exchange for a flattering biography, Life of John Tyler, which was printed in large quantities and given to postmasters to distribute. Next he embarked on a nationwide tour in the spring of 1843 to attempt to win over the people. Tyler was warmly received by the public at these events. The tour coincided with the dedication of the Bunker Hill Monument in Boston, Massachusetts. Shortly after the dedication, Tyler learned of Legaré's sudden death, which caused him to cancel the rest of the tour.
Tyler appointed Abel P. Upshur, a popular Secretary of the Navy and close adviser, as his new Secretary of State. Tyler and Upshur began quiet negotiations with the Texas government, promising military protection from Mexico in exchange for agreement with annexation. Upshur spread rumors of British designs on Texas to win support among Northern voters, while southerners were already on-side with the idea of admitting a new pro-slavery state. By January 1844 Upshur told the Texas government that he had found a large majority of senators in favor of an annexation treaty.
Then tragedy struck. A ceremonial cruise down the Potomac River was held aboard the newly built USS Princeton on February 28, 1844, the day after completion of the annexation treaty. Aboard the ship were 400 guests, including Tyler and his cabinet, as was the world's largest naval gun, the "Peacemaker." The gun had been ceremoniously fired several times in the afternoon, impressing the spectators. Captain Robert F. Stockton was convinced by the crowd to fire one more shot. Guests moved up to the deck, while Tyler remained below to watch his son-in-law, William Waller, sing. Suddenly an explosion was heard from above. The gun had malfunctioned and exploded. Tyler was unhurt, but a number of others were killed instantly, including his secretary of state, Abel Upshur. (Tyler's future wife Julia Gardner was also aboard, and had fainted after learning of the death of her father in the explosion. A chivalrous John Tyler carried her in his arms).
Tyler appointed former Vice President John C. Calhoun as his new Secretary of State in March of 1844. Calhoun was a leading advocate of slavery, and his appointment attracted opposition to the annexation treaty from many northern abolitionists. Both Henry Clay and Martin Van Buren, the front-runners for the Whig and Democratic Party nominations, decided in a private meeting at Van Buren's home to come out against annexation. Although he knew that Calhoun's appointment had attracted opposition to the annexation treaty, Tyler nevertheless sent the treaty to the Senate for ratification in April 1844.
Tyler attempted a return to his old Democratic party, but its members were not ready to accept him. He formed a third party, the Democratic-Republicans, using the officeholders and patronage networks he had built as president. The party slogan was "Tyler and Texas!" The new Democratic-Republican Party renominated Tyler for the presidency on May 27, 1844. Meanwhile, at the Democratic convention, Van Buren failed to win the necessary two-thirds majority. On the ninth ballot the Democrats settled on "dark horse" candidate James K. Polk, who also supported annexation.
The Whig-controlled Senate rejected the annexation treaty by a vote of 16–35 in June 1844. But this did not deter Tyler, who believed that annexation could still be achieved by joint resolution rather than by treaty. Former President Andrew Jackson, a staunch supporter of annexation, persuaded Polk to welcome Tyler back into the Democratic party and called for Democratic editors to end their attacks on him. This caused Tyler to drop out of the race for President in August and endorse Polk. He was pleased when, in November of 1844, Polk narrowly defeated Clay. He saw this as a green light for annexation.
Tyler announced in his annual message to Congress that "a controlling majority of the people and a large majority of the states have declared in favor of immediate annexation." In late February 1845, the House approved a joint resolution offering annexation to Texas by a substantial margin. The motion passed in the Senate, but the vote was much closer, 27 to 25. Three days before the end of his term, Tyler signed the bill into law. The Accidental President left office, having achieved his greatest goal as president. Texas entered the union as the 28th state on December 29, 1845.
William Henry Harrison died on April 4, 1841, a half-hour into the thirty-second day of his presidency. The death of a sitting president was unprecedented and no one was certain what happened next. Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 of the Constitution provided that "In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President". No one was sure exactly what this meant. Did the actual office of president "devolve" upon Vice President Tyler, or just its powers and duties?
Harrison's Cabinet met within an hour of Harrison's death. They decided that Tyler would be the Vice-President acting as President". Tyler disagreed. He asserted that the Constitution gave him full and unqualified powers of office. He had himself sworn in as President, setting what would become the precedent for the orderly transfer of power following a President's death. His oath was administered by Judge William Cranch in Tyler's hotel room. Tyler did not think the oath was necessary, as he had already given the same solemn promise when sworn in as vice president. But he took the oath, believing it would eliminate any doubt about his authority.
Tyler decided to keep the Harrison's cabinet in place. At his first cabinet meeting, Secretary of State Daniel Webster told Tyler that it had been Harrison's practice of making policy by a majority vote. Webster expected Tyler to continue this practice, but he assumed incorrectly. Tyler told his cabinet "I beg your pardon gentlemen. I am very glad to have in my Cabinet such able statesmen as you have proved yourselves to be. And I shall be pleased to avail myself of your counsel and advice. But I can never consent to being dictated to as to what I shall or shall not do. I, as president, shall be responsible for my administration. I hope to have your hearty co-operation in carrying out its measures. So long as you see fit to do this, I shall be glad to have you with me. When you think otherwise, your resignations will be accepted."
Tyler delivered an inaugural address before the Congress on April 9, but his claim to be president was not accepted by many members of Congress, including former President John Quincy Adams. Adams believed that Tyler was a caretaker and should either be called "Acting President", or remain vice president. Henry Clay had planned to be the real power broker in Washington and also considered Tyler to be the "vice-president" and called Tyler's presidency a "regency".Tyler was referred to by many mocking nicknames, including "His Accidency". But he remained firm in his conviction that he was the rightful president. When his political opponents sent correspondence to the White House addressed to the "vice president" or "acting president", Tyler had it returned unopened.
Tyler broke with his party over a major issue of the day, that of the national bank. On two occasions he vetoed Henry Clay's legislation for a national banking act. Tyler proposed an alternative fiscal plan known as the "Exchequer", but this was not acceptable to Clay. On September 11, 1841 after the second bank veto, members of the cabinet entered Tyler's office one by one and resigned, a stunt orchestrated by Clay, who hoped to force Tyler's resignation. Only Daniel Webster remained, because he wanted to finalize what became the 1842 Webster–Ashburton Treaty, and also to demonstrate his independence from Clay. On September 13, when Tyler refused to resign, the Whigs in Congress expelled Tyler from the party. Tyler was certainly very unpopular within his own Party. He was attacked in Whig newspapers and received hundreds of letters threatening his assassination. Whigs in Congress were so angry with Tyler that they refused to allocate funds to fix the White House, which was badly in need of repair.
Congressman John Botts introduced an impeachment resolution on July 10, 1842. It levied several charges against Tyler and called for a nine-member committee to investigate his behavior, hoping for a formal impeachment recommendation. The resolution was tabled until the following January when it was rejected by a vote of 127 to 83. John Quincy Adams sponsored a constitutional amendment to change the requirement for over-riding a presidential veto from two-thirds to a simple majority, but neither house of Congress supported this. In the mid-term election of 1842 the Whigs lost control of the House and this ended their impeachment efforts.
Tyler did enjoy a measure of popularity near the end of his term, at least among southerners, when he was able to orchestrate the annexation of Texas. After his being kicked out of the Whig Party, Tyler saw annexation of the independent republic as his only pathway to win election to the presidency in 1844. He had his ally Thomas Walker Gilmer, then a U.S. Representative from Virginia, publish a letter calling for the annexation of Texas, which was well received. Tyler knew he would need a Secretary of State who supported the Texas initiative. When Daniel Webster's work on the Webster-Ashburton treaty was complete, he obtained Webster's resignation and appointed Hugh S. Legaré of South Carolina as the new Secretary of State. He used patronage appointments gain support for the measure. He appointed journalist Alexander Abell as consul to Hawaii in exchange for a flattering biography, Life of John Tyler, which was printed in large quantities and given to postmasters to distribute. Next he embarked on a nationwide tour in the spring of 1843 to attempt to win over the people. Tyler was warmly received by the public at these events. The tour coincided with the dedication of the Bunker Hill Monument in Boston, Massachusetts. Shortly after the dedication, Tyler learned of Legaré's sudden death, which caused him to cancel the rest of the tour.
Tyler appointed Abel P. Upshur, a popular Secretary of the Navy and close adviser, as his new Secretary of State. Tyler and Upshur began quiet negotiations with the Texas government, promising military protection from Mexico in exchange for agreement with annexation. Upshur spread rumors of British designs on Texas to win support among Northern voters, while southerners were already on-side with the idea of admitting a new pro-slavery state. By January 1844 Upshur told the Texas government that he had found a large majority of senators in favor of an annexation treaty.
Then tragedy struck. A ceremonial cruise down the Potomac River was held aboard the newly built USS Princeton on February 28, 1844, the day after completion of the annexation treaty. Aboard the ship were 400 guests, including Tyler and his cabinet, as was the world's largest naval gun, the "Peacemaker." The gun had been ceremoniously fired several times in the afternoon, impressing the spectators. Captain Robert F. Stockton was convinced by the crowd to fire one more shot. Guests moved up to the deck, while Tyler remained below to watch his son-in-law, William Waller, sing. Suddenly an explosion was heard from above. The gun had malfunctioned and exploded. Tyler was unhurt, but a number of others were killed instantly, including his secretary of state, Abel Upshur. (Tyler's future wife Julia Gardner was also aboard, and had fainted after learning of the death of her father in the explosion. A chivalrous John Tyler carried her in his arms).
Tyler appointed former Vice President John C. Calhoun as his new Secretary of State in March of 1844. Calhoun was a leading advocate of slavery, and his appointment attracted opposition to the annexation treaty from many northern abolitionists. Both Henry Clay and Martin Van Buren, the front-runners for the Whig and Democratic Party nominations, decided in a private meeting at Van Buren's home to come out against annexation. Although he knew that Calhoun's appointment had attracted opposition to the annexation treaty, Tyler nevertheless sent the treaty to the Senate for ratification in April 1844.
Tyler attempted a return to his old Democratic party, but its members were not ready to accept him. He formed a third party, the Democratic-Republicans, using the officeholders and patronage networks he had built as president. The party slogan was "Tyler and Texas!" The new Democratic-Republican Party renominated Tyler for the presidency on May 27, 1844. Meanwhile, at the Democratic convention, Van Buren failed to win the necessary two-thirds majority. On the ninth ballot the Democrats settled on "dark horse" candidate James K. Polk, who also supported annexation.
The Whig-controlled Senate rejected the annexation treaty by a vote of 16–35 in June 1844. But this did not deter Tyler, who believed that annexation could still be achieved by joint resolution rather than by treaty. Former President Andrew Jackson, a staunch supporter of annexation, persuaded Polk to welcome Tyler back into the Democratic party and called for Democratic editors to end their attacks on him. This caused Tyler to drop out of the race for President in August and endorse Polk. He was pleased when, in November of 1844, Polk narrowly defeated Clay. He saw this as a green light for annexation.
Tyler announced in his annual message to Congress that "a controlling majority of the people and a large majority of the states have declared in favor of immediate annexation." In late February 1845, the House approved a joint resolution offering annexation to Texas by a substantial margin. The motion passed in the Senate, but the vote was much closer, 27 to 25. Three days before the end of his term, Tyler signed the bill into law. The Accidental President left office, having achieved his greatest goal as president. Texas entered the union as the 28th state on December 29, 1845.