Secretaries of State: George Marshall
General George Marshall is best known as the Chief of Staff for the US Army during World War II and as the architect of the Marshall Plan. He was a remarkable combination of soldier and statesman. He achieved the remarkable feat of being the first (and so far the only) US Army officer to win the Nobel Peace Prize.
George Catlett Marshall Jr. was born on December 31, 1880 in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. In 1901 he graduated from the Virginia Military Institute. He served as commandant of students at the Danville Military Academy in Danville, Virginia, and the following year in February of 1902 he received his commission as a second lieutenant of Infantry. By this time the Spanish–American War was over, but the US military now had foreign possessions to watch over. Marshall served at home and overseas in positions of platoon leader and company commander in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War. He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907, and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College class.
In 1916 Marshall was assigned as an aide-de-camp to J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department of the US Army. When the United States entered World War I, Marshall served with Bell while Bell commanded the Department of the East. He was assigned to the staff of the 1st Division, and assisted with the organization's mobilization and training in the United States, as well as planning of its combat operations in France. Later he was assigned to the staff of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters. In that role Marshall was one of the main planners of American operations including the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.
When the war ended, Marshall was assigned as an aide-de-camp to General John J. Pershing, who was then serving as the Army's Chief of Staff. He later commanded the 15th Infantry Regiment in China, and also served as an instructor at the Army War College. In 1927, he became assistant commandant of the Army's Infantry School, where he modernized command and staff processes. In 1932 and 1933 Marshall commanded the 8th Infantry Regiment and Fort Screven, Georgia. He commanded 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938, and was promoted to brigadier general. He was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington. In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff, and he was subsequently appointed as the Army's Deputy Chief of Staff. When Chief of Staff Malin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall became acting Chief of Staff, before being appointed to the position. He served as Chief of Staff until the end of the war in 1945.
As Chief of Staff, Marshall was responsible for organizing the largest military expansion in U.S. history. He was promoted to the rank of General of the Army. Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific until the end of the war. He was credited by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill with being the organizer of Allied victory in Europe. Time magazine named Marshall its Man of the Year for 1943.
Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty. In late 1945 and early 1946, at the request of President Harry Truman, he served as a special envoy to China in an unsuccessful effort to negotiate a coalition government between the Nationalists of Chiang Kai-shek and Communists under Mao Tse Tung. Truman sent Marshall to China, to broker a coalition government, but Marshall had no leverage over the Communists. He threatened to withdraw American aid to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and the Chinese Civil War escalated. The Communists won in 1949. Marshall returned to the United States in January 1947. Chiang Kai-shek later blamed Marshall for forcing the Nationalists to agree to a cease-fire, which enabled the Communists to regroup and avoid defeat. Marshall disagreed with those in The Pentagon and State Department who believed that Chiang's success was vital to American interests. He did not want American troops to be involved in the conflict.
After Marshall's return to the United States in early 1947, Truman appointed Marshall Secretary of State, succeeding Jimmy Byrnes. Marshall became the chief promotoer for the State Department's plans for the rebuilding of Europe. On June 5, 1947, in a speech he game at Harvard University, Marshall outlined his grand proposal. It was formally known as the European Recovery Program, but it became better known as the Marshall Plan. Truman's advisor Clark Clifford suggested to Truman that the plan be called the Truman Plan, but Truman dismissed that idea and insisted that it be called the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan would help Europe quickly rebuild and modernize its economy along American lines. Marshall was once again named Time's Man of the Year for 1947. He received the Nobel Peace Prize for his post-war work in 1953, and so far he is the only career officer in United States Army to ever receive this honor.
As Secretary of State, Marshall was strongly opposed to recognizing the state of Israel. He felt that if the state of Israel was declared that a war would break out in the Middle East. His prediction proved accurate. In 1948, one day after Israel declared independence, the war began. Marshall believed that Truman's motive in recognizing the Jewish state was a political one designed to gain Jewish support in the upcoming election. He told President Truman in May 1948, "If you (recognize the state of Israel) and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you." In fact, Marshall did not vote in any election as a matter of principle, believing that as a soldier, he should be politically neutral.
After Truman was re-elected in 1948, Marshall resigned from the State Department on January 7, 1949. His health was poor. He became chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission and in September 1949, Marshall was named president of the American National Red Cross. But he returned to Truman's cabinet in September of 1950 as Secretary of Defense. The early months of the Korean War showed how poorly prepared the Defense Department was. Truman fired Secretary Louis A. Johnson and replaced him with Marshall. The appointment required a congressional waiver because the National Security Act of 1947 prohibited a uniformed military officer from serving in the post. Marshall's main role as Secretary of Defense was to restore confidence and morale while rebuilding the armed forces following their post-World War II demobilization.
Marshall participated in the decision authorizing Douglas MacArthur to conduct operations in North Korea. He wrote to MacArthur on September 29, 1950, stating: "We want you to feel unhampered strategically and tactically to proceed north of the 38th Parallel". Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff were generally supportive of MacArthur because they were of the view that field commanders should be able to exercise their best judgment. Following Chinese military intervention in Korea, Marshall opposed a cease–fire on the grounds that it would make the U.S. look weak to the Chinese. He believed that the U.S. had a moral obligation to honor its commitment to South Korea. But he opposed expanding the war in Korea and confronting China, He stressed the importance of containing the Soviet Union during the Cold War battle for primacy in Europe.
Public statements from General Douglas MacArthur contradicted those of Truman regarding prosecution of the war. On April 6, 1951, Truman held a meeting with Marshall, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, Secretary of State Acheson and advisor W. Averell Harriman to discuss whether MacArthur should be removed from command. Marshall asked for more time to consider the matter. The following day, Marshall opposed MacArthur's firing. Marshall, Bradley, Acheson and Harriman met with Truman again on April 9. Marshall now agreed that MacArthur's firing was desirable in order to maintain civilian control and oversight of the military. Truman wrote in his diary that "it is of unanimous opinion of all that MacArthur be relieved. All four so advise." On April 11, 1951, President Truman directed transmittal of an order to MacArthur, issued over Bradley's signature, relieving MacArthur of his command and directing him to turn over command to Matthew Ridgway.
Marshall retired as Secretary of Defense in September 1951. He returned to his home in Leesburg, Virginia. He was head of the American delegation at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 and continued to serve as Chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission from 1949 to 1959. Marshall died at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C. on October 16, 1959 at the age of 78. He is interred at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.
George Catlett Marshall Jr. was born on December 31, 1880 in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. In 1901 he graduated from the Virginia Military Institute. He served as commandant of students at the Danville Military Academy in Danville, Virginia, and the following year in February of 1902 he received his commission as a second lieutenant of Infantry. By this time the Spanish–American War was over, but the US military now had foreign possessions to watch over. Marshall served at home and overseas in positions of platoon leader and company commander in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War. He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907, and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College class.
In 1916 Marshall was assigned as an aide-de-camp to J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department of the US Army. When the United States entered World War I, Marshall served with Bell while Bell commanded the Department of the East. He was assigned to the staff of the 1st Division, and assisted with the organization's mobilization and training in the United States, as well as planning of its combat operations in France. Later he was assigned to the staff of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters. In that role Marshall was one of the main planners of American operations including the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.
When the war ended, Marshall was assigned as an aide-de-camp to General John J. Pershing, who was then serving as the Army's Chief of Staff. He later commanded the 15th Infantry Regiment in China, and also served as an instructor at the Army War College. In 1927, he became assistant commandant of the Army's Infantry School, where he modernized command and staff processes. In 1932 and 1933 Marshall commanded the 8th Infantry Regiment and Fort Screven, Georgia. He commanded 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938, and was promoted to brigadier general. He was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington. In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff, and he was subsequently appointed as the Army's Deputy Chief of Staff. When Chief of Staff Malin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall became acting Chief of Staff, before being appointed to the position. He served as Chief of Staff until the end of the war in 1945.
As Chief of Staff, Marshall was responsible for organizing the largest military expansion in U.S. history. He was promoted to the rank of General of the Army. Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific until the end of the war. He was credited by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill with being the organizer of Allied victory in Europe. Time magazine named Marshall its Man of the Year for 1943.
Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty. In late 1945 and early 1946, at the request of President Harry Truman, he served as a special envoy to China in an unsuccessful effort to negotiate a coalition government between the Nationalists of Chiang Kai-shek and Communists under Mao Tse Tung. Truman sent Marshall to China, to broker a coalition government, but Marshall had no leverage over the Communists. He threatened to withdraw American aid to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and the Chinese Civil War escalated. The Communists won in 1949. Marshall returned to the United States in January 1947. Chiang Kai-shek later blamed Marshall for forcing the Nationalists to agree to a cease-fire, which enabled the Communists to regroup and avoid defeat. Marshall disagreed with those in The Pentagon and State Department who believed that Chiang's success was vital to American interests. He did not want American troops to be involved in the conflict.
After Marshall's return to the United States in early 1947, Truman appointed Marshall Secretary of State, succeeding Jimmy Byrnes. Marshall became the chief promotoer for the State Department's plans for the rebuilding of Europe. On June 5, 1947, in a speech he game at Harvard University, Marshall outlined his grand proposal. It was formally known as the European Recovery Program, but it became better known as the Marshall Plan. Truman's advisor Clark Clifford suggested to Truman that the plan be called the Truman Plan, but Truman dismissed that idea and insisted that it be called the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan would help Europe quickly rebuild and modernize its economy along American lines. Marshall was once again named Time's Man of the Year for 1947. He received the Nobel Peace Prize for his post-war work in 1953, and so far he is the only career officer in United States Army to ever receive this honor.
As Secretary of State, Marshall was strongly opposed to recognizing the state of Israel. He felt that if the state of Israel was declared that a war would break out in the Middle East. His prediction proved accurate. In 1948, one day after Israel declared independence, the war began. Marshall believed that Truman's motive in recognizing the Jewish state was a political one designed to gain Jewish support in the upcoming election. He told President Truman in May 1948, "If you (recognize the state of Israel) and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you." In fact, Marshall did not vote in any election as a matter of principle, believing that as a soldier, he should be politically neutral.
After Truman was re-elected in 1948, Marshall resigned from the State Department on January 7, 1949. His health was poor. He became chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission and in September 1949, Marshall was named president of the American National Red Cross. But he returned to Truman's cabinet in September of 1950 as Secretary of Defense. The early months of the Korean War showed how poorly prepared the Defense Department was. Truman fired Secretary Louis A. Johnson and replaced him with Marshall. The appointment required a congressional waiver because the National Security Act of 1947 prohibited a uniformed military officer from serving in the post. Marshall's main role as Secretary of Defense was to restore confidence and morale while rebuilding the armed forces following their post-World War II demobilization.
Marshall participated in the decision authorizing Douglas MacArthur to conduct operations in North Korea. He wrote to MacArthur on September 29, 1950, stating: "We want you to feel unhampered strategically and tactically to proceed north of the 38th Parallel". Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff were generally supportive of MacArthur because they were of the view that field commanders should be able to exercise their best judgment. Following Chinese military intervention in Korea, Marshall opposed a cease–fire on the grounds that it would make the U.S. look weak to the Chinese. He believed that the U.S. had a moral obligation to honor its commitment to South Korea. But he opposed expanding the war in Korea and confronting China, He stressed the importance of containing the Soviet Union during the Cold War battle for primacy in Europe.
Public statements from General Douglas MacArthur contradicted those of Truman regarding prosecution of the war. On April 6, 1951, Truman held a meeting with Marshall, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, Secretary of State Acheson and advisor W. Averell Harriman to discuss whether MacArthur should be removed from command. Marshall asked for more time to consider the matter. The following day, Marshall opposed MacArthur's firing. Marshall, Bradley, Acheson and Harriman met with Truman again on April 9. Marshall now agreed that MacArthur's firing was desirable in order to maintain civilian control and oversight of the military. Truman wrote in his diary that "it is of unanimous opinion of all that MacArthur be relieved. All four so advise." On April 11, 1951, President Truman directed transmittal of an order to MacArthur, issued over Bradley's signature, relieving MacArthur of his command and directing him to turn over command to Matthew Ridgway.
Marshall retired as Secretary of Defense in September 1951. He returned to his home in Leesburg, Virginia. He was head of the American delegation at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 and continued to serve as Chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission from 1949 to 1959. Marshall died at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C. on October 16, 1959 at the age of 78. He is interred at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.