Presidents and Crisis: William McKinley and the Spanish-American War
The most significant event of William McKinley's first term in office (from 1897-1901) was the Spanish-American War, fought in Cuba. It has been said that McKinley was reluctant to go to war, and that war hawks like publisher William Randolph Hearst and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt goaded him into it.
For decades (probably most seriously commencing with the Ten Years War in 1868), rebels in Cuba had waged a battle for freedom from Spanish colonial rule. By 1895, the conflict had expanded to a war for Cuban independence. As war engulfed the island, Spanish reprisals against the rebels grew quite drastic. These included the removal of Cubans to concentration camps near Spanish military bases, a strategy designed to make it hard for the rebels to receive support in the countryside.
American public opinion favored the rebels. In New York City, publishers Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential for great headlines and stories that would sell copies arising out of the situation in Cuba. Both papers covered Spain’s actions and the tactics of General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau in a manner that reinforced the popular disparaging attitude toward Spain. In the minds of the mostly Protestant U.S. public, the Catholic Spanish Empire was a backward, immoral union built on the backs of enslaved Cubans.
In 1897 tensions were rising in Cuba as a number of persons on the island were calling for independence from Spain. The Spanish Government regarded Cuba as a province of Spain rather than a colony, and relied on it for trade, and well as for a training ground for its army. Spanish Prime minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo announced: "the Spanish nation is disposed to sacrifice to the last peseta of its treasure and to the last drop of blood of the last Spaniard before consenting that anyone snatch from it even one piece of its territory." The Spanish Prime Minister had dominated and stabilized Spanish politics for a considerable time. When he was assassinated in 1897 by Italian anarchist Michele Angiolillo, the Spanish political system was left in an unstable position.
Prior to his death, Cánovas del Castillo had ordered General Arsenio Martínez-Campos, a distinguished veteran from the previous uprising in Cuba, to quell a further revolt in Cuba. The general's method of containing the revolt to the province of Oriente earned him criticism in the Spanish press. He was replaced by General Valeriano Weyler, a soldier who had experience in quelling other rebellions. Weyler ordered the residents of some Cuban districts to move to reconcentration areas near the military headquarters. This strategy was effective in slowing the spread of rebellion, but led to accusations in the United States and other places of atrocities against the rebels by the army, fueling the fire of anti-Spanish propaganda. President William McKinley was publicly critical of Spanish actions against armed rebels. He even said this "was not civilized warfare" but "extermination".
Weyler's measures, and the public outcry these events provoked led to a campaign by newspaper industry in New York City, where Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential to increase sales of newspapers with the issue. Both papers denounced Spain. They pointed out that the U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict. Shipping firms that had relied heavily on trade with Cuba now suffered losses as the conflict continued unresolved. These firms joined in putting pressure on Congress and McKinley to intervene to end to the revolt. Other American business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, also looked to their president to to restore order in Cuba.
McKinley tried to work out the issues diplomatically. But as tension increased among the Cubans and Spanish Government, public support for intervention began to increase in the United States. A movement known as "Cuba Libre" (Free Cuba) began and many Americans saw parallels between the American Revolution and the Cuban revolt. The saw Spain as a tyrannical colonial oppressor, much like Great Britain in the Revolutionary War.
The U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict and deepening uncertainty about the future of Cuba. Shipping firms that relied heavily on trade with Cuba suffered huge losses as the conflict continued unresolved. These firms pressed Congress and McKinley to seek an end to the revolt. Other U.S. business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, looked to the Spanish to restore order.
President McKinley searched for ways to end the revolt peacefully. He considered recognizing the Cuban rebels, thereby allowing the legal rearming of Cuban insurgents by U.S. firms. He sent Stewart L. Woodford to Madrid to negotiate an end to the conflict. Práxedes Sagasta was the new Prime Minister of Spain and was more of a moderate on the issue of Cuba. The more hard-line Cánovas del Castillo had been assassinated before Woodford arrived. Negotiations appeared to be going well, but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence, while the rebels (and their American supporters) would never settle for anything less.
In January 1898, Spain promised some concessions to the rebels, but when American consul Fitzhugh Lee reported riots in Havana, McKinley agreed to send the battleship USS Maine there to protect American lives and property. On February 15, the U.S.S. Maine exploded and sunk with 266 men killed. Public opinion and the newspapers demanded war, but McKinley insisted that it first be determined if the explosion was accidental.On March 20, a court of inquiry ruled that the Maine was blown up by an underwater mine.(Subsequent investigation has cast considerable doubt on this conclusion.)
As pressure for war mounted in Congress, McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence. Spain refused McKinley's proposals, and on April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. He did not ask for war, but nevertheless Congress declared war on Spain on April 20, with the addition of an amendment which disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba. The war would be fought on two theaters: Cuba and the Philippines.
McKinley was dissatisfied with his Secretary of War Russell Alger, and he did not get along with the Army's commanding general, Nelson A. Miles. He chose to bypass them, and get strategic advice first from Miles's predecessor, General John Schofield, and later from Adjutant General Henry Clarke Corbin.
Very early in the campaign, the navy had its first victory when the Asiatic Squadron, led by Commodore George Dewey, engaged the Spanish navy at the Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines, destroying the enemy force without the loss of a single American vessel. The next month, McKinley increased the number of troops sent to the Philippines and granted the force's commander, Major General Wesley Merritt, the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes—necessities for a long occupation. By the time the troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898, McKinley had decided that Spain would be required to surrender this colony to the United States. He believed that as the war progressed, the public would come to demand retention of the islands as a prize of war.
In the Caribbean theater, a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered near Tampa, Florida, for an invasion of Cuba. The army faced difficulties in supplying the rapidly expanding force even before they departed for Cuba, but by June, the problems were resolved. After lengthy delays, the army, led by Major General William Rufus Shafter, sailed from Florida on June 20, landing near Santiago de Cuba two days later. Following a skirmish at Las Guasimas on June 24, Shafter's army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the Battle of San Juan Hill. In an intense day-long battle, the American force was victorious, although both sides suffered heavy casualties. Theodore Roosevelt gained notoriety from his participation in the battle.
The next day, the Spanish Caribbean squadron, which had been sheltering in Santiago's harbor, broke for the open sea but was intercepted and destroyed by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson's North Atlantic Squadron in the largest naval battle of the war. Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago, which surrendered on July 17, placing Cuba under effective American control. McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of Puerto Rico, which met little resistance when it landed in July.
The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible, and the Spanish government began to look for a way to end the war. On July 22, the Spanish authorized Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador to the United States, to represent Spain in negotiating peace. McKinley's cabinet agreed with him that Spain must leave Cuba and Puerto Rico, but they disagreed on the Philippines.
McKinley proposed to open negotiations with Spain on the basis of Cuban liberation and Puerto Rican annexation, with the final status of the Philippines subject to further discussion. He stood firmly in that demand even as the military situation on Cuba began to deteriorate when the American army was struck with yellow fever. Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12, and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898. The talks continued until December 18, when the Treaty of Paris was signed.
The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of Guam, and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba. In exchange, the United States agreed to pay Spain $20 million. McKinley had difficulty convincing the Senate to approve the treaty by the requisite two-thirds vote, but his lobbying, and that of Vice President Garrett Hobart, eventually saw success, as the Senate voted in favor on February 6, 1899, 57 to 27.
For decades (probably most seriously commencing with the Ten Years War in 1868), rebels in Cuba had waged a battle for freedom from Spanish colonial rule. By 1895, the conflict had expanded to a war for Cuban independence. As war engulfed the island, Spanish reprisals against the rebels grew quite drastic. These included the removal of Cubans to concentration camps near Spanish military bases, a strategy designed to make it hard for the rebels to receive support in the countryside.
American public opinion favored the rebels. In New York City, publishers Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential for great headlines and stories that would sell copies arising out of the situation in Cuba. Both papers covered Spain’s actions and the tactics of General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau in a manner that reinforced the popular disparaging attitude toward Spain. In the minds of the mostly Protestant U.S. public, the Catholic Spanish Empire was a backward, immoral union built on the backs of enslaved Cubans.
In 1897 tensions were rising in Cuba as a number of persons on the island were calling for independence from Spain. The Spanish Government regarded Cuba as a province of Spain rather than a colony, and relied on it for trade, and well as for a training ground for its army. Spanish Prime minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo announced: "the Spanish nation is disposed to sacrifice to the last peseta of its treasure and to the last drop of blood of the last Spaniard before consenting that anyone snatch from it even one piece of its territory." The Spanish Prime Minister had dominated and stabilized Spanish politics for a considerable time. When he was assassinated in 1897 by Italian anarchist Michele Angiolillo, the Spanish political system was left in an unstable position.
Prior to his death, Cánovas del Castillo had ordered General Arsenio Martínez-Campos, a distinguished veteran from the previous uprising in Cuba, to quell a further revolt in Cuba. The general's method of containing the revolt to the province of Oriente earned him criticism in the Spanish press. He was replaced by General Valeriano Weyler, a soldier who had experience in quelling other rebellions. Weyler ordered the residents of some Cuban districts to move to reconcentration areas near the military headquarters. This strategy was effective in slowing the spread of rebellion, but led to accusations in the United States and other places of atrocities against the rebels by the army, fueling the fire of anti-Spanish propaganda. President William McKinley was publicly critical of Spanish actions against armed rebels. He even said this "was not civilized warfare" but "extermination".
Weyler's measures, and the public outcry these events provoked led to a campaign by newspaper industry in New York City, where Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential to increase sales of newspapers with the issue. Both papers denounced Spain. They pointed out that the U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict. Shipping firms that had relied heavily on trade with Cuba now suffered losses as the conflict continued unresolved. These firms joined in putting pressure on Congress and McKinley to intervene to end to the revolt. Other American business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, also looked to their president to to restore order in Cuba.
McKinley tried to work out the issues diplomatically. But as tension increased among the Cubans and Spanish Government, public support for intervention began to increase in the United States. A movement known as "Cuba Libre" (Free Cuba) began and many Americans saw parallels between the American Revolution and the Cuban revolt. The saw Spain as a tyrannical colonial oppressor, much like Great Britain in the Revolutionary War.
The U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict and deepening uncertainty about the future of Cuba. Shipping firms that relied heavily on trade with Cuba suffered huge losses as the conflict continued unresolved. These firms pressed Congress and McKinley to seek an end to the revolt. Other U.S. business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, looked to the Spanish to restore order.
President McKinley searched for ways to end the revolt peacefully. He considered recognizing the Cuban rebels, thereby allowing the legal rearming of Cuban insurgents by U.S. firms. He sent Stewart L. Woodford to Madrid to negotiate an end to the conflict. Práxedes Sagasta was the new Prime Minister of Spain and was more of a moderate on the issue of Cuba. The more hard-line Cánovas del Castillo had been assassinated before Woodford arrived. Negotiations appeared to be going well, but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence, while the rebels (and their American supporters) would never settle for anything less.
In January 1898, Spain promised some concessions to the rebels, but when American consul Fitzhugh Lee reported riots in Havana, McKinley agreed to send the battleship USS Maine there to protect American lives and property. On February 15, the U.S.S. Maine exploded and sunk with 266 men killed. Public opinion and the newspapers demanded war, but McKinley insisted that it first be determined if the explosion was accidental.On March 20, a court of inquiry ruled that the Maine was blown up by an underwater mine.(Subsequent investigation has cast considerable doubt on this conclusion.)
As pressure for war mounted in Congress, McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence. Spain refused McKinley's proposals, and on April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. He did not ask for war, but nevertheless Congress declared war on Spain on April 20, with the addition of an amendment which disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba. The war would be fought on two theaters: Cuba and the Philippines.
McKinley was dissatisfied with his Secretary of War Russell Alger, and he did not get along with the Army's commanding general, Nelson A. Miles. He chose to bypass them, and get strategic advice first from Miles's predecessor, General John Schofield, and later from Adjutant General Henry Clarke Corbin.
Very early in the campaign, the navy had its first victory when the Asiatic Squadron, led by Commodore George Dewey, engaged the Spanish navy at the Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines, destroying the enemy force without the loss of a single American vessel. The next month, McKinley increased the number of troops sent to the Philippines and granted the force's commander, Major General Wesley Merritt, the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes—necessities for a long occupation. By the time the troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898, McKinley had decided that Spain would be required to surrender this colony to the United States. He believed that as the war progressed, the public would come to demand retention of the islands as a prize of war.
In the Caribbean theater, a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered near Tampa, Florida, for an invasion of Cuba. The army faced difficulties in supplying the rapidly expanding force even before they departed for Cuba, but by June, the problems were resolved. After lengthy delays, the army, led by Major General William Rufus Shafter, sailed from Florida on June 20, landing near Santiago de Cuba two days later. Following a skirmish at Las Guasimas on June 24, Shafter's army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the Battle of San Juan Hill. In an intense day-long battle, the American force was victorious, although both sides suffered heavy casualties. Theodore Roosevelt gained notoriety from his participation in the battle.
The next day, the Spanish Caribbean squadron, which had been sheltering in Santiago's harbor, broke for the open sea but was intercepted and destroyed by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson's North Atlantic Squadron in the largest naval battle of the war. Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago, which surrendered on July 17, placing Cuba under effective American control. McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of Puerto Rico, which met little resistance when it landed in July.
The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible, and the Spanish government began to look for a way to end the war. On July 22, the Spanish authorized Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador to the United States, to represent Spain in negotiating peace. McKinley's cabinet agreed with him that Spain must leave Cuba and Puerto Rico, but they disagreed on the Philippines.
McKinley proposed to open negotiations with Spain on the basis of Cuban liberation and Puerto Rican annexation, with the final status of the Philippines subject to further discussion. He stood firmly in that demand even as the military situation on Cuba began to deteriorate when the American army was struck with yellow fever. Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12, and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898. The talks continued until December 18, when the Treaty of Paris was signed.
The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of Guam, and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba. In exchange, the United States agreed to pay Spain $20 million. McKinley had difficulty convincing the Senate to approve the treaty by the requisite two-thirds vote, but his lobbying, and that of Vice President Garrett Hobart, eventually saw success, as the Senate voted in favor on February 6, 1899, 57 to 27.