The First 100 Days: James Madison
As Thomas Jefferson's second term was winding down, he let it be known that he would not seek a third term. James Madison, who had held the post of Secretary of State in the Jefferson administration, was seen as the leading contender in the Democratic-Republican Party to succeed Jefferson. The party's congressional caucus, which chose the candidate, selected Madison, as expected. By this time, the opposition Federalist Party had little strength outside of New England, and in the presidential election, Madison easily defeated its candidate, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, winning 122 electoral votes to Pinckney’s 47 votes.
In his first term, Madison planned to continue Jefferson's agenda. One of the things on Madison's agenda was the dismantling of the banking system set up by Jefferson's political nemesis, Alexander Hamilton. The twenty-year charter of the first Bank of the United States was scheduled to expire in 1811. Madison's Treasury secretary Albert Gallatin argued that the bank was a necessity. Congress sided with Madison and failed to re-authorize the bank. The absence of a national bank would come back to haunt Madison as it made the subsequent war with Britain difficult to finance. Congress would later pass another bill in 1814 chartering a second national bank. Madison vetoed it and financing the war became even more difficult.
The acquisition of West Florida from Spain had been something that Jefferson had wanted to accomplish, in light of the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson and James Monroe, who had negotiated the Louisiana Purchase, contended that the purchase had included West Florida, and Madison continued to uphold this claim. Spain disagreed. The United States was reluctant to go to war with Spain because they worried that France or Great Britain might intervene. Instead, Madison sent William Wykoff into West Florida with instructions to stir up a local rebellion against Spain. A group of dissidents declared themselves to be the Republic of West Florida, and Madison quickly sent federal troops into the territory, annexing it to the Territory of Orleans. Madison also sent George Mathews and John McKee into East Florida in an attempt to undermine Spanish rule, but they were unsuccessful in fomenting a revolt.
At the time of Madison's inauguration, Napoleon Bonaparte was Emperor of France. Napoleon had won a decisive victory at the Battle of Austerlitz four years earlier in 1805, and Europe was at peace for the next few years. Tensions continued at sea, where the United States continued to trade with both France and Britain. British and French attacks on American shipping had continued, causing the Jefferson administration to pass the Embargo Act of 1807. The Embargo Act made it illegal to trade with the French and British. Congress repealed this act shortly before Madison became president. America's new policy was to trade with all countries including France and Britain. The principal dispute between the Great Britain and the United States was the impressment of American sailors by the British. During the long and expensive war against France, many British citizens were forced by their own government to join the navy, and many of these conscripts defected to U.S. merchant ships. Unable to tolerate this loss of manpower, the British seized several U.S. ships and forced captured crewmen to serve in the British navy. Though outraged by this practice, American merchants often needed to use British ships to export and import good.
By August 1809, diplomatic relations with Britain deteriorated. In the early stages of his administration, Madison resisted calls for war. Beside the loss of life and the political consequences of losing a war, he was also opposed to incurring the debt and imposing the taxes necessary to fight a war. During his first State of the Union Address in November 1809, Madison asked Congress for advice and alternatives concerning the British-American trade crisis, and warned of the possibility of war. By the following spring, Madison asked Congress for more appropriations to increase the Army and Navy in preparation for war with Britain.
By 1809 the Federalist Party was no longer competitive outside of a few strongholds in New England. Some former members, such as John Quincy Adams, had joined Madison's Republican Party. Madison had rewarded Adams by appointing him ambassador to Russia. However factionalism reared its head once again, as the Republican party began to split into rival sections. With hostility to Britain increasing, factions favoring and opposing a war formed in Congress. The "War Hawks" were led by House Speaker Henry Clay. This faction would ultimately have its way as war would come in 1812.
Many historians have been critical of Madison for his conduct of the war that would come. Madison ultimately proved to be a poor wartime president. He allowed a confused command structure, political influence trumped ability in his selection of senior military and civilian appointments, and he trusted the militia more than a standing professional army. According to one Madison biographer, the Presidency was weaker in 1815 than at any earlier time. Congress made policy and Madison was too deferential. This biographer writes of his subject:
"He blundered, he deferred excessively to Congress, and he took the United States deliberately into war that could have been disastrous – and was in fact disastrous to the extent that it lead to destruction of the national capitol. Some of his actions reflected a view incompatible with continued development of the modern nation state. Nevertheless, other of his actions strengthened the constitutional system. Additionally, he prepared the country – perhaps unconsciously – truly to enter the new century, and in many ways he conducted himself in a manner that could serve as a model for presidents, even today. One could look only at the accomplishments and conclude that Madison's presidency was "great." Or by considering only his failures of leadership could conclude that it was weak and bumbling."
In his first term, Madison planned to continue Jefferson's agenda. One of the things on Madison's agenda was the dismantling of the banking system set up by Jefferson's political nemesis, Alexander Hamilton. The twenty-year charter of the first Bank of the United States was scheduled to expire in 1811. Madison's Treasury secretary Albert Gallatin argued that the bank was a necessity. Congress sided with Madison and failed to re-authorize the bank. The absence of a national bank would come back to haunt Madison as it made the subsequent war with Britain difficult to finance. Congress would later pass another bill in 1814 chartering a second national bank. Madison vetoed it and financing the war became even more difficult.
The acquisition of West Florida from Spain had been something that Jefferson had wanted to accomplish, in light of the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson and James Monroe, who had negotiated the Louisiana Purchase, contended that the purchase had included West Florida, and Madison continued to uphold this claim. Spain disagreed. The United States was reluctant to go to war with Spain because they worried that France or Great Britain might intervene. Instead, Madison sent William Wykoff into West Florida with instructions to stir up a local rebellion against Spain. A group of dissidents declared themselves to be the Republic of West Florida, and Madison quickly sent federal troops into the territory, annexing it to the Territory of Orleans. Madison also sent George Mathews and John McKee into East Florida in an attempt to undermine Spanish rule, but they were unsuccessful in fomenting a revolt.
At the time of Madison's inauguration, Napoleon Bonaparte was Emperor of France. Napoleon had won a decisive victory at the Battle of Austerlitz four years earlier in 1805, and Europe was at peace for the next few years. Tensions continued at sea, where the United States continued to trade with both France and Britain. British and French attacks on American shipping had continued, causing the Jefferson administration to pass the Embargo Act of 1807. The Embargo Act made it illegal to trade with the French and British. Congress repealed this act shortly before Madison became president. America's new policy was to trade with all countries including France and Britain. The principal dispute between the Great Britain and the United States was the impressment of American sailors by the British. During the long and expensive war against France, many British citizens were forced by their own government to join the navy, and many of these conscripts defected to U.S. merchant ships. Unable to tolerate this loss of manpower, the British seized several U.S. ships and forced captured crewmen to serve in the British navy. Though outraged by this practice, American merchants often needed to use British ships to export and import good.
By August 1809, diplomatic relations with Britain deteriorated. In the early stages of his administration, Madison resisted calls for war. Beside the loss of life and the political consequences of losing a war, he was also opposed to incurring the debt and imposing the taxes necessary to fight a war. During his first State of the Union Address in November 1809, Madison asked Congress for advice and alternatives concerning the British-American trade crisis, and warned of the possibility of war. By the following spring, Madison asked Congress for more appropriations to increase the Army and Navy in preparation for war with Britain.
By 1809 the Federalist Party was no longer competitive outside of a few strongholds in New England. Some former members, such as John Quincy Adams, had joined Madison's Republican Party. Madison had rewarded Adams by appointing him ambassador to Russia. However factionalism reared its head once again, as the Republican party began to split into rival sections. With hostility to Britain increasing, factions favoring and opposing a war formed in Congress. The "War Hawks" were led by House Speaker Henry Clay. This faction would ultimately have its way as war would come in 1812.
Many historians have been critical of Madison for his conduct of the war that would come. Madison ultimately proved to be a poor wartime president. He allowed a confused command structure, political influence trumped ability in his selection of senior military and civilian appointments, and he trusted the militia more than a standing professional army. According to one Madison biographer, the Presidency was weaker in 1815 than at any earlier time. Congress made policy and Madison was too deferential. This biographer writes of his subject:
"He blundered, he deferred excessively to Congress, and he took the United States deliberately into war that could have been disastrous – and was in fact disastrous to the extent that it lead to destruction of the national capitol. Some of his actions reflected a view incompatible with continued development of the modern nation state. Nevertheless, other of his actions strengthened the constitutional system. Additionally, he prepared the country – perhaps unconsciously – truly to enter the new century, and in many ways he conducted himself in a manner that could serve as a model for presidents, even today. One could look only at the accomplishments and conclude that Madison's presidency was "great." Or by considering only his failures of leadership could conclude that it was weak and bumbling."