The First 100 Days: Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson ran for president three times. The first two times, his main opponent was John Adams. Jefferson lost in his first election (when the runner-up prize was the Vice-Presidency), but in 1800 he won the rematch. At first it looked like he might lose again, not to Adams, but to the man who was supposed to be his "running mate". Jefferson and his vice presidential candidate Aaron Burr unexpectedly received an equal total of electoral college votes (73 each). Due to the tie, the Constitution required that the election would be decided by the House of Representatives. At the time, the House was dominated by the opposition party, the Federalists. The de facto leader of the Federalists at the time was Alexander Hamilton, the man who had been Jefferson's opponent in the cabinet of George Washington. However, as much as Hamilton disliked Jefferson, he disliked Burr even more. Hamilton lobbied Federalist representatives on Jefferson's behalf, believing him to be a lesser political evil than Burr. (While we'll never know for sure, Hamilton probably was right) On February 17, 1801, after thirty-six ballots, the House elected Jefferson president and Burr vice president.
Jefferson's first inauguration took place on March 4, 1801. It was the first to be held in the nation's new capital of Washington, D.C. The oath of office was administered by Chief Justice John Marshall. That morning an artillery company on Capitol Hill had fired shots to welcome the daybreak, and Jefferson gave a copy of his speech to the National Intelligencer for it to be published and available right after delivery. He delivered his inaugural address in the United States Capitol's Senate Chamber. In the speech he called for national unity, following the hard fought and bitter election campaign. Outgoing President Adams had left the capital earlier that day, and did not attend the ceremony.
Jefferson selected an impressive cabinet, made up of Secretary of State James Madison, Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, Attorney General Levi Lincoln Sr., and Secretary of the Navy Robert Smith. Because of Burr's decision to pursue the presidency in the election held in the House of Representatives, Jefferson decided to exclude Burr from any significant role in his administration.
Jefferson's election in 1800 was the first time in US history that there was a transfer of power between parties. As president, Jefferson had the power of appointment to fill many government positions that had previously been held by Federalists. Jefferson resisted suggestions by his fellow Democratic-Republicans that he remove all Federalists from their appointed positions. He decided to replace the top government officials, including the cabinet. He also decided that he would replace any Federalist appointee who engaged in partisan behavior. Of course all new appointees were members of the Democratic-Republican Party.
In the final days of his presidency, John Adams had appointed a number of federal judges to their positions. This followed the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1801, one of the last bills passed during Adams presidency, and after his defeat in the election of 1800. The Judiciary Act established the several circuit courts. Before leaving office, Adams filled these positions with Federalists. Democratic-Republicans were outraged by the appointment of these judges, who were called "midnight judges." To counter this move, Jefferson tried to abolish the positions. In the following year, the Democratic-Republicans passed the Judiciary Act of 1802. The Jefferson administration also refused to deliver judicial commissions to some Adams appointees who had won Senate confirmation but had not yet formally taken office. One such appointee, William Marbury, sued Secretary of State Madison to compel him to deliver the judicial commissions. In the 1803 Supreme Court case of Marbury v. Madison, the court ruled against Marbury, but in doing so, it established the precedent of judicial review, thereby strengthening the authority of the judicial branch of government.
Upon assuming office, Jefferson faced an $83 million national debt. He approached the problem by dismantling Hamilton's Federalist fiscal system. He and Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin decided to eliminated the whiskey tax and other taxes. They cut expenditures by closing what were deemed to be unnecessary offices and cutting other expenses. Jefferson wanted to close the national bank, but was persuaded not to do so by Gallatin. Jefferson reduced the size of the Navy that had been built up by Adams during the "quasi-war" with France, replacing it with a fleet of inexpensive gunboats used for defense. By the end of his presidency, he had lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 million.
The only war that occurred during Jefferson's presidency was The First Barbary War. It was the first war that the United States fought on foreign soil or seas. For decades, North African pirates had been capturing American merchant ships, pillaging valuable cargoes and enslaving crew members, and demanding huge ransoms for their release. Before independence, American merchant ships enjoyed some protection from the Barbary pirates by the British Navy, but this protection ended after the colonies won their independence. For a time after the American Revolution began, American ships were protected by the 1778 alliance with France. When Jefferson took office, he refused the demands of Tripoli for further tribute, resulting in a declaration of war by Tripoli. On May 15, 1801, Jefferson's cabinet voted unanimously to send three frigates and a schooner to the Mediterranean for a show of force. The three frigates were the USS Philadelphia, USS President, and the USS Essex along with the schooner USS Enterprise. This was the first American naval squadron to cross the Atlantic Ocean. Under the command of Commodore Richard Dale, the squadron sailed into the Mediterranean on July 1. After stopping at Gibraltar for supplies, Dale learned that Tripoli had already declared war upon the United States. Jefferson ordered five separate naval bombardments of Tripoli. This restored peace in the Mediterranean for a while, but Jefferson continued to pay the tribute demanded by the remaining Barbary States until the end of his presidency.
When Jefferson began his presidency, he pursued a plan to annex the Spanish province of Louisiana to the United States. But in 1801, Napoleon pressured Spain to transfer the province to France in the 1801 Treaty of Aranjuez. Napoleon hoped to re-establish the French colonial empire in North America. But problems cause by insurrection in Saint-Domingue and renewed hostilities between France and Britain convinced Napoleon to give up on his idea of re-establishing French control in North America. The following year in 1802, Jefferson sent James Monroe and Robert Livingston to Paris to pursue negotiations for the purchase of the city of New Orleans and adjacent coastal areas. To the surprise of the American delegation, Napoleon offered to sell the entire territory for $15 million. Secretary of State James Madison gave his assurances that the purchase was permissible under the Constitution, and the Senate ratified the treaty. The House immediately authorized funding and the purchase concluded in December 1803. The purchase nearly doubled the size of the United States. Treasury Secretary Gallatin was forced to borrow from foreign banks to finance the payment to France.
In 1804 Jefferson won a second term as President. He is generally regarded as historically significant for his primary authorship of the Declaration of Independence during the Revolutionary War, his advocacy of religious freedom and tolerance in Virginia, and for the Louisiana Purchase while he was president.
Jefferson's first inauguration took place on March 4, 1801. It was the first to be held in the nation's new capital of Washington, D.C. The oath of office was administered by Chief Justice John Marshall. That morning an artillery company on Capitol Hill had fired shots to welcome the daybreak, and Jefferson gave a copy of his speech to the National Intelligencer for it to be published and available right after delivery. He delivered his inaugural address in the United States Capitol's Senate Chamber. In the speech he called for national unity, following the hard fought and bitter election campaign. Outgoing President Adams had left the capital earlier that day, and did not attend the ceremony.
Jefferson selected an impressive cabinet, made up of Secretary of State James Madison, Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, Attorney General Levi Lincoln Sr., and Secretary of the Navy Robert Smith. Because of Burr's decision to pursue the presidency in the election held in the House of Representatives, Jefferson decided to exclude Burr from any significant role in his administration.
Jefferson's election in 1800 was the first time in US history that there was a transfer of power between parties. As president, Jefferson had the power of appointment to fill many government positions that had previously been held by Federalists. Jefferson resisted suggestions by his fellow Democratic-Republicans that he remove all Federalists from their appointed positions. He decided to replace the top government officials, including the cabinet. He also decided that he would replace any Federalist appointee who engaged in partisan behavior. Of course all new appointees were members of the Democratic-Republican Party.
In the final days of his presidency, John Adams had appointed a number of federal judges to their positions. This followed the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1801, one of the last bills passed during Adams presidency, and after his defeat in the election of 1800. The Judiciary Act established the several circuit courts. Before leaving office, Adams filled these positions with Federalists. Democratic-Republicans were outraged by the appointment of these judges, who were called "midnight judges." To counter this move, Jefferson tried to abolish the positions. In the following year, the Democratic-Republicans passed the Judiciary Act of 1802. The Jefferson administration also refused to deliver judicial commissions to some Adams appointees who had won Senate confirmation but had not yet formally taken office. One such appointee, William Marbury, sued Secretary of State Madison to compel him to deliver the judicial commissions. In the 1803 Supreme Court case of Marbury v. Madison, the court ruled against Marbury, but in doing so, it established the precedent of judicial review, thereby strengthening the authority of the judicial branch of government.
Upon assuming office, Jefferson faced an $83 million national debt. He approached the problem by dismantling Hamilton's Federalist fiscal system. He and Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin decided to eliminated the whiskey tax and other taxes. They cut expenditures by closing what were deemed to be unnecessary offices and cutting other expenses. Jefferson wanted to close the national bank, but was persuaded not to do so by Gallatin. Jefferson reduced the size of the Navy that had been built up by Adams during the "quasi-war" with France, replacing it with a fleet of inexpensive gunboats used for defense. By the end of his presidency, he had lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 million.
The only war that occurred during Jefferson's presidency was The First Barbary War. It was the first war that the United States fought on foreign soil or seas. For decades, North African pirates had been capturing American merchant ships, pillaging valuable cargoes and enslaving crew members, and demanding huge ransoms for their release. Before independence, American merchant ships enjoyed some protection from the Barbary pirates by the British Navy, but this protection ended after the colonies won their independence. For a time after the American Revolution began, American ships were protected by the 1778 alliance with France. When Jefferson took office, he refused the demands of Tripoli for further tribute, resulting in a declaration of war by Tripoli. On May 15, 1801, Jefferson's cabinet voted unanimously to send three frigates and a schooner to the Mediterranean for a show of force. The three frigates were the USS Philadelphia, USS President, and the USS Essex along with the schooner USS Enterprise. This was the first American naval squadron to cross the Atlantic Ocean. Under the command of Commodore Richard Dale, the squadron sailed into the Mediterranean on July 1. After stopping at Gibraltar for supplies, Dale learned that Tripoli had already declared war upon the United States. Jefferson ordered five separate naval bombardments of Tripoli. This restored peace in the Mediterranean for a while, but Jefferson continued to pay the tribute demanded by the remaining Barbary States until the end of his presidency.
When Jefferson began his presidency, he pursued a plan to annex the Spanish province of Louisiana to the United States. But in 1801, Napoleon pressured Spain to transfer the province to France in the 1801 Treaty of Aranjuez. Napoleon hoped to re-establish the French colonial empire in North America. But problems cause by insurrection in Saint-Domingue and renewed hostilities between France and Britain convinced Napoleon to give up on his idea of re-establishing French control in North America. The following year in 1802, Jefferson sent James Monroe and Robert Livingston to Paris to pursue negotiations for the purchase of the city of New Orleans and adjacent coastal areas. To the surprise of the American delegation, Napoleon offered to sell the entire territory for $15 million. Secretary of State James Madison gave his assurances that the purchase was permissible under the Constitution, and the Senate ratified the treaty. The House immediately authorized funding and the purchase concluded in December 1803. The purchase nearly doubled the size of the United States. Treasury Secretary Gallatin was forced to borrow from foreign banks to finance the payment to France.
In 1804 Jefferson won a second term as President. He is generally regarded as historically significant for his primary authorship of the Declaration of Independence during the Revolutionary War, his advocacy of religious freedom and tolerance in Virginia, and for the Louisiana Purchase while he was president.