The First 100 Days: James Garfield
The entire presidency of James Garfield lasted for 200, but for the last 81 days, following July 2nd of 1881, Garfield was bedridden, trying to recover from the gunshot wounds that led to his death on September 19th. His presidency offered such promise. He had risen to the rank of Major General during the Civil War, and had served in Congress from 1863 until his election to the presidency. While in Congress he had been a leader who had served on a number of influential committees, including Ways and Means, and Appropriations. It remains a matter of speculation whether Garfield would have been another in a line of forgotten presidents or if his experience in working with Congress would have led to considerable reform and a greater legacy.
Garfield won his party's nomination, emerging as a compromise in a deadlocked convention that pitted the Stalwarts, led by Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York, and the "half-breeds" led by James G. Blaine of Maine. Conkling was backing Ulysses Grant in his bid for a third (but non-consecutive) term as President. Garfield had come to the convention supporting fellow Ohioan John Sherman, but it was Garfield who ultimately proved to be a more acceptable candidate to the delegates. In the general election, there were few differences between Garfield and his Democratic opponent, General Winfield Scott Hancock. With fifteen years having passed since the end of the Civil War, and Union generals at the head of both tickets, any post-war resentment didn't really enter into the choice put before voters. It turned out that the tariff was the issue that resulted in a narrow victory for Garfield. He won by less than two thousand votes, out of over 9.2 million popular votes cast, but in the Electoral College Garfield had an easy victory over Hancock, 214 to 155.
Following his victory, Garfield set about choosing assembling a cabinet that would establish peace between Conkling's and Blaine's warring factions. Blaine's delegates had provided most of the support for Garfield's nomination, and the Maine senator received the plumb job of Secretary of State. Blaine became Garfield's closest advisor. Garfield nominated William Windom of Minnesota as Secretary of the Treasury, William H. Hunt of Louisiana as Secretary of the Navy, Robert Todd Lincoln as Secretary of War, and Samuel J. Kirkwood of Iowa as Secretary of the Interior. New York was represented by Thomas Lemuel James as Postmaster General. Garfield appointed Pennsylvania's Wayne MacVeagh, an adversary of Blaine's, as Attorney General.
Garfield's inaugural address contained a plea for greater civil rights of African-Americans. He said: "Freedom can never yield its fullness of blessings so long as the law or its administration places the smallest obstacle in the pathway of any virtuous citizen." His address also discussed the gold standard, the need for education, and a denunciation of Mormon polygamy.
Some of Garfield's appointments angered Roscoe Conkling, especially those of Blaine and of James as Postmaster General. Conkling demanded a compensatory appointment for his faction, but Garfield refused to relent. Conkling felt betrayed and believed that Garfield had reneged on a promise made prior to the election. Conkling became even more upset when, at Blaine's instigation, Garfield nominated Conkling's enemy, Judge William H. Robertson, to be Collector of the Port of New York. This was one of the prize patronage positions below cabinet level, and was then held by Edwin A. Merritt. Conkling claimed that the time-honored principle of senatorial courtesy prevailed and that he, not the president, should have selected the holder of this position. Garfield believed that this practice was corrupt, and he refused to back down. He threatened to withdraw all nominations unless Robertson was confirmed. Garfield said that he wanted to "settle the question whether the President is registering clerk of the Senate or the Executive of the United States."
In a move that, in hindsight proved foolish, Conkling and his New York colleague, Senator Thomas C. Platt, resigned their Senate seats to seek vindication. They believed that they would be reappointed and would demonstrate to the president where the real power in the state of New York was held. Instead Conkling and Platt suffered further humiliation when the New York legislature elected others in their places. Robertson was confirmed as Collector and Garfield was the clear victor. Garfield returned to his goal of balancing the interests of party factions, and nominated a number of Conkling's Stalwart friends to other offices, something that displeased Blaine.
The two previous Presidents, Ulysses Grant and Rutherford Hayes, had both advocated civil service reform, and by 1881, civil service reform associations had formed across the nation. Garfield sympathized with them, and was not a believer in the spoils system. But reformers were disappointed that Garfield had called for limited tenure only for minor office seekers and had given appointments to his old friends. Still, they saw him as the lesser of two evils on this issue.
Corruption in the post office was also an issue confronting Garfield at the beginning of his presidency. In April of 1880, there had been a congressional investigation into corruption in the Post Office Department, in which it was revealed that profiteering rings had allegedly stolen millions of dollars by securing bogus mail contracts on star routes. After obtaining contracts with the lowest bid, costs to run the mail routes would be escalated and profits would be divided among ring members. The outgoing President Hayes had stopped the implementation of any new star route contracts. Shortly after taking office, Garfield received information from Attorney General MacVeagh and Postmaster General James of postal corruption by an alleged star route ringleader, Second Assistant Postmaster-General Thomas J. Brady. Garfield called for Brady's resignation and ordered the alleged offenders prosecuted for conspiracy. When told that his party, including his own campaign manager, Stephen W. Dorsey, was involved, Garfield directed MacVeagh and James to root out the corruption in the Post Office Department "to the bone", regardless of where it might lead. Brady resigned and was eventually indicted for conspiracy, but after two "star route" ring trials in 1882 and 1883, the jury found Brady not guilty.
Garfield believed that the key to improving the condition of African American civil rights was to provide this segment of the population with education, through assistance from the federal government. In the Reconstruction years following the Civil War, freedmen had gained citizenship and suffrage that enabled them to participate in government, but Garfield believed their rights were being eroded by Southern white resistance. Matters had become worse when Rutherford Hayes removed federal troops from the south. Garfield said that he concerned that the former slaves and their families and descendants would become America's "permanent peasantry." He proposed that there be a "universal" education system funded by the federal government. But he did not have support for his proposition in Congress and this was not an issue that had sufficient support among the northern white public.
Garfield also worked to appoint several African Americans to prominent positions. His appointments included Frederick Douglass as recorder of deeds in Washington; Robert Elliot as special agent to the Treasury; John M. Langston as Minister (Ambassador) to Haiti; and Blanche K. Bruce as register to the Treasury. Garfield began to reverse Hayes's policy of conciliating Southern Democrats. He appointed William H. Hunt, a "carpetbagger" Republican from Louisiana, as Secretary of the Navy. In Virginia, he tool patronage advice from Virginia Senator William Mahone of the biracial independent Readjuster Party.
Garfield entered the presidency with little foreign policy experience, so he leaned heavily on the more experienced James G. Blaine. Blaine and Garfield both agreed that there should be freer trade, especially within the Western Hemisphere. Garfield and Blaine believed that increasing trade with Latin America would be the best way to keep Great Britain from dominating the region. They also felt that by encouraging exports, this would increase American prosperity. Garfield authorized Blaine to call for a Pan-American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among the Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increasing trade. At the same conference, they hoped to negotiate a peace in the War of the Pacific then being fought by Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Blaine favored a resolution that would not result in Peru yielding any territory, but Chile rejected any settlement that restored the previous status quo. Garfield died before the conference could take place.
Garfield also sought to expand American influence in other areas, calling for renegotiation of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty to allow the United States to construct a canal through Panama without British involvement. He also wanted to reduce British influence in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Garfield and Blaine wanted the United States to have influence beyond the Western Hemisphere. He sought commercial treaties with Korea and Madagascar. Garfield also considered enhancing the United States' military strength abroad, asking Navy Secretary Hunt to investigate the condition of the navy with an eye toward expansion and modernization.
Garfield was assassinated before being able to follow through on any of these plance. Nine countries had accepted invitations to the Pan-American conference, but the invitations were withdrawn in April 1882 after Blaine resigned from the cabinet and President Chester Alan Arthur cancelled the conference. Naval reform continued under Arthur.
One hundred and nineteen days into his term, on July 2, 1881, Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, a man usually labelled as a "disgruntled office seeker". The shooting took place at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C. After eleven weeks of intensive and other care Garfield died in Elberon, New Jersey.
Garfield's presidency had a promising start, and an untimely end. Garfield has been judged by its potential. His victory over the Stalwarts enhanced both the power and prestige of his office. Garfield was intelligent and his knowledge of how government worked was superb. He certainly showed promise for what might have been a memorable presidency.
Garfield won his party's nomination, emerging as a compromise in a deadlocked convention that pitted the Stalwarts, led by Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York, and the "half-breeds" led by James G. Blaine of Maine. Conkling was backing Ulysses Grant in his bid for a third (but non-consecutive) term as President. Garfield had come to the convention supporting fellow Ohioan John Sherman, but it was Garfield who ultimately proved to be a more acceptable candidate to the delegates. In the general election, there were few differences between Garfield and his Democratic opponent, General Winfield Scott Hancock. With fifteen years having passed since the end of the Civil War, and Union generals at the head of both tickets, any post-war resentment didn't really enter into the choice put before voters. It turned out that the tariff was the issue that resulted in a narrow victory for Garfield. He won by less than two thousand votes, out of over 9.2 million popular votes cast, but in the Electoral College Garfield had an easy victory over Hancock, 214 to 155.
Following his victory, Garfield set about choosing assembling a cabinet that would establish peace between Conkling's and Blaine's warring factions. Blaine's delegates had provided most of the support for Garfield's nomination, and the Maine senator received the plumb job of Secretary of State. Blaine became Garfield's closest advisor. Garfield nominated William Windom of Minnesota as Secretary of the Treasury, William H. Hunt of Louisiana as Secretary of the Navy, Robert Todd Lincoln as Secretary of War, and Samuel J. Kirkwood of Iowa as Secretary of the Interior. New York was represented by Thomas Lemuel James as Postmaster General. Garfield appointed Pennsylvania's Wayne MacVeagh, an adversary of Blaine's, as Attorney General.
Garfield's inaugural address contained a plea for greater civil rights of African-Americans. He said: "Freedom can never yield its fullness of blessings so long as the law or its administration places the smallest obstacle in the pathway of any virtuous citizen." His address also discussed the gold standard, the need for education, and a denunciation of Mormon polygamy.
Some of Garfield's appointments angered Roscoe Conkling, especially those of Blaine and of James as Postmaster General. Conkling demanded a compensatory appointment for his faction, but Garfield refused to relent. Conkling felt betrayed and believed that Garfield had reneged on a promise made prior to the election. Conkling became even more upset when, at Blaine's instigation, Garfield nominated Conkling's enemy, Judge William H. Robertson, to be Collector of the Port of New York. This was one of the prize patronage positions below cabinet level, and was then held by Edwin A. Merritt. Conkling claimed that the time-honored principle of senatorial courtesy prevailed and that he, not the president, should have selected the holder of this position. Garfield believed that this practice was corrupt, and he refused to back down. He threatened to withdraw all nominations unless Robertson was confirmed. Garfield said that he wanted to "settle the question whether the President is registering clerk of the Senate or the Executive of the United States."
In a move that, in hindsight proved foolish, Conkling and his New York colleague, Senator Thomas C. Platt, resigned their Senate seats to seek vindication. They believed that they would be reappointed and would demonstrate to the president where the real power in the state of New York was held. Instead Conkling and Platt suffered further humiliation when the New York legislature elected others in their places. Robertson was confirmed as Collector and Garfield was the clear victor. Garfield returned to his goal of balancing the interests of party factions, and nominated a number of Conkling's Stalwart friends to other offices, something that displeased Blaine.
The two previous Presidents, Ulysses Grant and Rutherford Hayes, had both advocated civil service reform, and by 1881, civil service reform associations had formed across the nation. Garfield sympathized with them, and was not a believer in the spoils system. But reformers were disappointed that Garfield had called for limited tenure only for minor office seekers and had given appointments to his old friends. Still, they saw him as the lesser of two evils on this issue.
Corruption in the post office was also an issue confronting Garfield at the beginning of his presidency. In April of 1880, there had been a congressional investigation into corruption in the Post Office Department, in which it was revealed that profiteering rings had allegedly stolen millions of dollars by securing bogus mail contracts on star routes. After obtaining contracts with the lowest bid, costs to run the mail routes would be escalated and profits would be divided among ring members. The outgoing President Hayes had stopped the implementation of any new star route contracts. Shortly after taking office, Garfield received information from Attorney General MacVeagh and Postmaster General James of postal corruption by an alleged star route ringleader, Second Assistant Postmaster-General Thomas J. Brady. Garfield called for Brady's resignation and ordered the alleged offenders prosecuted for conspiracy. When told that his party, including his own campaign manager, Stephen W. Dorsey, was involved, Garfield directed MacVeagh and James to root out the corruption in the Post Office Department "to the bone", regardless of where it might lead. Brady resigned and was eventually indicted for conspiracy, but after two "star route" ring trials in 1882 and 1883, the jury found Brady not guilty.
Garfield believed that the key to improving the condition of African American civil rights was to provide this segment of the population with education, through assistance from the federal government. In the Reconstruction years following the Civil War, freedmen had gained citizenship and suffrage that enabled them to participate in government, but Garfield believed their rights were being eroded by Southern white resistance. Matters had become worse when Rutherford Hayes removed federal troops from the south. Garfield said that he concerned that the former slaves and their families and descendants would become America's "permanent peasantry." He proposed that there be a "universal" education system funded by the federal government. But he did not have support for his proposition in Congress and this was not an issue that had sufficient support among the northern white public.
Garfield also worked to appoint several African Americans to prominent positions. His appointments included Frederick Douglass as recorder of deeds in Washington; Robert Elliot as special agent to the Treasury; John M. Langston as Minister (Ambassador) to Haiti; and Blanche K. Bruce as register to the Treasury. Garfield began to reverse Hayes's policy of conciliating Southern Democrats. He appointed William H. Hunt, a "carpetbagger" Republican from Louisiana, as Secretary of the Navy. In Virginia, he tool patronage advice from Virginia Senator William Mahone of the biracial independent Readjuster Party.
Garfield entered the presidency with little foreign policy experience, so he leaned heavily on the more experienced James G. Blaine. Blaine and Garfield both agreed that there should be freer trade, especially within the Western Hemisphere. Garfield and Blaine believed that increasing trade with Latin America would be the best way to keep Great Britain from dominating the region. They also felt that by encouraging exports, this would increase American prosperity. Garfield authorized Blaine to call for a Pan-American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among the Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increasing trade. At the same conference, they hoped to negotiate a peace in the War of the Pacific then being fought by Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Blaine favored a resolution that would not result in Peru yielding any territory, but Chile rejected any settlement that restored the previous status quo. Garfield died before the conference could take place.
Garfield also sought to expand American influence in other areas, calling for renegotiation of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty to allow the United States to construct a canal through Panama without British involvement. He also wanted to reduce British influence in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Garfield and Blaine wanted the United States to have influence beyond the Western Hemisphere. He sought commercial treaties with Korea and Madagascar. Garfield also considered enhancing the United States' military strength abroad, asking Navy Secretary Hunt to investigate the condition of the navy with an eye toward expansion and modernization.
Garfield was assassinated before being able to follow through on any of these plance. Nine countries had accepted invitations to the Pan-American conference, but the invitations were withdrawn in April 1882 after Blaine resigned from the cabinet and President Chester Alan Arthur cancelled the conference. Naval reform continued under Arthur.
One hundred and nineteen days into his term, on July 2, 1881, Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, a man usually labelled as a "disgruntled office seeker". The shooting took place at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C. After eleven weeks of intensive and other care Garfield died in Elberon, New Jersey.
Garfield's presidency had a promising start, and an untimely end. Garfield has been judged by its potential. His victory over the Stalwarts enhanced both the power and prestige of his office. Garfield was intelligent and his knowledge of how government worked was superb. He certainly showed promise for what might have been a memorable presidency.