Presidents at War: James Madison and the Burning of Washington
James Madison became President in March of 1809. By that time, diplomatic relations with Great Britain had deteriorated, but Madison resisted calls for war, holding onto the feint hope that a diplomatic solution might be reached. On April 20, 1795 Madison wrote:
Of all the enemies to public liberty war is, perhaps, the most to be dreaded, because it comprises and develops the germ of every other. War is the parent of armies; from these proceed debts and taxes; and armies, and debts, and taxes are the known instruments for bringing the many under the domination of the few. In war, too, the discretionary power of the Executive is extended; its influence in dealing out offices, honors, and emoluments is multiplied; and all the means of seducing the minds, are added to those of subduing the force, of the people. The same malignant aspect in republicanism may be traced in the inequality of fortunes, and the opportunities of fraud, growing out of a state of war, and in the degeneracy of manners and of morals engendered by both. No nation could preserve its freedom in the midst of continual warfare.
But Madison became outraged at accusations of duplicity from British Ambassador Francis James Jackson. Madison had Jackson barred from the State Department and sent packing. In his first state of the Union address in November 1809, Madison asked Congress for advice and alternatives concerning British-American trade crisis and to prepare for war. By Spring 1810, Madison was specifically asking Congress for more appropriations to increase the Army and Navy in preparation for war with Britain.
The United States economy began to recover early in Madison's presidency. By the time Madison was standing for reelection, the Peninsular War in Spain had spread, while at the same time Napoleon invaded Russia, and the entire European continent was once again embroiled in war. Great Britain became the only major power in the Atlantic, and it increased naval pressure against American ships. British tactics quickly caused widespread American anger. Britain used its navy to prevent American ships from trading with France. The United States, which was a neutral nation, considered this act to be against international law. Britain also armed Indian tribes in the Northwest Territory and encouraged them to attack settlers, even though Britain had ceded this territory to the United States by treaties in 1783 and 1794. The Royal Navy boarded American ships on the high seas and impressed its seamen, as it needed more sailors than it could recruit. The United States looked upon this as no less an affront to American sovereignty than if the British had invaded American soil. Americans called for a "second war of independence". An angry public elected a "war hawk" Congress, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war, which passed along party lines, with intense opposition from the Federalists and the Northeast, where the economy had suffered during Jefferson's trade embargo.
Madison called on Congress to put the country into war mode. He recommended enlarging the army, preparing the militia, stockpiling munitions, and expanding the navy. Madison faced a divided cabinet, a factious party, a recalcitrant Congress, obstructionist governors, and incompetent generals, together with militia who refused to fight outside their states. There was a lack of unified popular support and serious threats of disunion from New England, which refused to provide financial support or soldiers. By the time the war began, Madison's military force consisted mostly of poorly trained militia members.
After the defeat and exile of Napoleon Bonaparte in April 1814, the British were able to collect newly available troops and ships to prosecute the war with the United States. Rear Admiral George Cockburn had been commanding the squadron in Chesapeake Bay since the previous year. On June 25 he wrote to his superiors, stressing that the defenses of the region were weak, and several major cities were vulnerable to attack. Cochrane suggested attacking Baltimore, Washington and Philadelphia. On July 17, Cockburn recommended Washington as the target, because of the comparative ease of attack and the political effect likely to result. An added motive for the British to attack was retaliation for the destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie by American forces in May of that year. On July 18, orders were issued to Cockburn informing him that to "You are hereby required and directed to destroy and lay waste such towns and districts as you may find assailable".
A force of 2,500 soldiers under Major General Robert Ross arrived in Bermuda aboard HMS Royal Oak, three frigates, three sloops, and ten other vessels. Sailing up the Patuxent, the combined British naval and land forces forced the retreat of the Maryland militia. Their threat effectively resulted in the hesitancy of the local Maryland militia to oppose the invaders. After neutralizing American resistance, the British forces landed at Benedict, Maryland, on August 19 where they routed the US Navy's Chesapeake Bay Flotilla, a detachment of US Marines, and the inexperienced American militia at the Battle of Bladensburg on August 24.
Immediately after the battle, the British sent an advance guard of soldiers to Capitol Hill. Major General Ross sent a party under a flag of truce to agree to terms, but they were attacked by locals from a house at the corner of Maryland Avenue, Constitution Avenue, and Second Street NE. This was to be the only resistance the soldiers met within the city. The house was burned, and the British raised their Union Flag over Washington.
The buildings housing the Senate and House of Representatives were set on fire. The interiors of both buildings, which held the Library of Congress, were destroyed. Thomas Jefferson later sold his personal library of more than 6,000 volumes to the government to restock the Library of Congress.
President Madison and members of the military and his government fled the city in the wake of the British attack. They eventually found refuge for the night in Brookeville, a small town in Montgomery County, Maryland, which today is referred to as the United States Capital for a Day. President Madison spent the night in the house of Caleb Bentley, a Quaker who lived and worked in Brookeville. Bentley's house, known today as the Madison House, still stands in Brookeville.
The troops turned northwest up Pennsylvania Avenue toward the White House. After the US government officials fled, the First Lady Dolley Madison remained behind to organize the slaves and staff to save valuables from the British. Her role increased her popularity, but was likely embellished. James Madison's personal server, the slave Paul Jennings, was an eyewitness to the event. In his memoir published in 1865, he wrote:
It has often been stated in print, that when Mrs. Madison escaped from the White House, she cut out from the frame the large portrait of Washington (now in one of the parlors there), and carried it off. She had no time for doing it. It would have required a ladder to get it down. All she carried off was the silver in her reticule, as the British were thought to be but a few squares off, and were expected any moment... John Susé [Jean-Pierre Sioussat] (a Frenchman, then door-keeper, and still living) and Magraw [McGraw], the President's gardener, took it down and sent it off on a wagon, with some large silver urns and such other valuables as could be hastily got hold of. When the British did arrive, they ate up the very dinner, and drank the wines, &c., that I had prepared for the President's party.
The soldiers burned the president's house, and fuel was added to the fires that night to ensure they would continue burning into the next day. The British also burned the United States Treasury and other public buildings. One witness wrote: "When the smoke cleared from the dreadful attack, the Patent Office was the only Government building left untouched."
The Americans had burned much of the Washington Navy Yard, to prevent capture of stores and ammunition, as well as the 44-gun frigate USS Columbia and the 18 gun USS Argus both new vessels nearing completion.
Less than a day after the attack began, a sudden heavy thunderstorm put out most of the fires. A tornado passed through the center of the capital, lifting two cannons before dropping them several yards away, killing British troops and American civilians. The storm forced the British troops to return to their ships, many of which were badly damaged. The occupation of Washington lasted only about 26 hours.
President Madison returned to Washington by September 1, on which date he issued as proclamation calling on citizens to defend the District of Columbia. Congress returned and assembled in special session on September 19. Due to the destruction of the Capitol and other public buildings, they initially met in the Post and Patent Office building.
James Monroe, who had been Secretary of State under Madison, was critical of Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr., who had failed to heed Monroe's warnings about the vulnerability of the capitol. Shortly thereafter, Armstrong was removed from his position and Monroe served concurrently as Secretary of State and Secretary of War.
Of all the enemies to public liberty war is, perhaps, the most to be dreaded, because it comprises and develops the germ of every other. War is the parent of armies; from these proceed debts and taxes; and armies, and debts, and taxes are the known instruments for bringing the many under the domination of the few. In war, too, the discretionary power of the Executive is extended; its influence in dealing out offices, honors, and emoluments is multiplied; and all the means of seducing the minds, are added to those of subduing the force, of the people. The same malignant aspect in republicanism may be traced in the inequality of fortunes, and the opportunities of fraud, growing out of a state of war, and in the degeneracy of manners and of morals engendered by both. No nation could preserve its freedom in the midst of continual warfare.
But Madison became outraged at accusations of duplicity from British Ambassador Francis James Jackson. Madison had Jackson barred from the State Department and sent packing. In his first state of the Union address in November 1809, Madison asked Congress for advice and alternatives concerning British-American trade crisis and to prepare for war. By Spring 1810, Madison was specifically asking Congress for more appropriations to increase the Army and Navy in preparation for war with Britain.
The United States economy began to recover early in Madison's presidency. By the time Madison was standing for reelection, the Peninsular War in Spain had spread, while at the same time Napoleon invaded Russia, and the entire European continent was once again embroiled in war. Great Britain became the only major power in the Atlantic, and it increased naval pressure against American ships. British tactics quickly caused widespread American anger. Britain used its navy to prevent American ships from trading with France. The United States, which was a neutral nation, considered this act to be against international law. Britain also armed Indian tribes in the Northwest Territory and encouraged them to attack settlers, even though Britain had ceded this territory to the United States by treaties in 1783 and 1794. The Royal Navy boarded American ships on the high seas and impressed its seamen, as it needed more sailors than it could recruit. The United States looked upon this as no less an affront to American sovereignty than if the British had invaded American soil. Americans called for a "second war of independence". An angry public elected a "war hawk" Congress, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war, which passed along party lines, with intense opposition from the Federalists and the Northeast, where the economy had suffered during Jefferson's trade embargo.
Madison called on Congress to put the country into war mode. He recommended enlarging the army, preparing the militia, stockpiling munitions, and expanding the navy. Madison faced a divided cabinet, a factious party, a recalcitrant Congress, obstructionist governors, and incompetent generals, together with militia who refused to fight outside their states. There was a lack of unified popular support and serious threats of disunion from New England, which refused to provide financial support or soldiers. By the time the war began, Madison's military force consisted mostly of poorly trained militia members.
After the defeat and exile of Napoleon Bonaparte in April 1814, the British were able to collect newly available troops and ships to prosecute the war with the United States. Rear Admiral George Cockburn had been commanding the squadron in Chesapeake Bay since the previous year. On June 25 he wrote to his superiors, stressing that the defenses of the region were weak, and several major cities were vulnerable to attack. Cochrane suggested attacking Baltimore, Washington and Philadelphia. On July 17, Cockburn recommended Washington as the target, because of the comparative ease of attack and the political effect likely to result. An added motive for the British to attack was retaliation for the destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie by American forces in May of that year. On July 18, orders were issued to Cockburn informing him that to "You are hereby required and directed to destroy and lay waste such towns and districts as you may find assailable".
A force of 2,500 soldiers under Major General Robert Ross arrived in Bermuda aboard HMS Royal Oak, three frigates, three sloops, and ten other vessels. Sailing up the Patuxent, the combined British naval and land forces forced the retreat of the Maryland militia. Their threat effectively resulted in the hesitancy of the local Maryland militia to oppose the invaders. After neutralizing American resistance, the British forces landed at Benedict, Maryland, on August 19 where they routed the US Navy's Chesapeake Bay Flotilla, a detachment of US Marines, and the inexperienced American militia at the Battle of Bladensburg on August 24.
Immediately after the battle, the British sent an advance guard of soldiers to Capitol Hill. Major General Ross sent a party under a flag of truce to agree to terms, but they were attacked by locals from a house at the corner of Maryland Avenue, Constitution Avenue, and Second Street NE. This was to be the only resistance the soldiers met within the city. The house was burned, and the British raised their Union Flag over Washington.
The buildings housing the Senate and House of Representatives were set on fire. The interiors of both buildings, which held the Library of Congress, were destroyed. Thomas Jefferson later sold his personal library of more than 6,000 volumes to the government to restock the Library of Congress.
President Madison and members of the military and his government fled the city in the wake of the British attack. They eventually found refuge for the night in Brookeville, a small town in Montgomery County, Maryland, which today is referred to as the United States Capital for a Day. President Madison spent the night in the house of Caleb Bentley, a Quaker who lived and worked in Brookeville. Bentley's house, known today as the Madison House, still stands in Brookeville.
The troops turned northwest up Pennsylvania Avenue toward the White House. After the US government officials fled, the First Lady Dolley Madison remained behind to organize the slaves and staff to save valuables from the British. Her role increased her popularity, but was likely embellished. James Madison's personal server, the slave Paul Jennings, was an eyewitness to the event. In his memoir published in 1865, he wrote:
It has often been stated in print, that when Mrs. Madison escaped from the White House, she cut out from the frame the large portrait of Washington (now in one of the parlors there), and carried it off. She had no time for doing it. It would have required a ladder to get it down. All she carried off was the silver in her reticule, as the British were thought to be but a few squares off, and were expected any moment... John Susé [Jean-Pierre Sioussat] (a Frenchman, then door-keeper, and still living) and Magraw [McGraw], the President's gardener, took it down and sent it off on a wagon, with some large silver urns and such other valuables as could be hastily got hold of. When the British did arrive, they ate up the very dinner, and drank the wines, &c., that I had prepared for the President's party.
The soldiers burned the president's house, and fuel was added to the fires that night to ensure they would continue burning into the next day. The British also burned the United States Treasury and other public buildings. One witness wrote: "When the smoke cleared from the dreadful attack, the Patent Office was the only Government building left untouched."
The Americans had burned much of the Washington Navy Yard, to prevent capture of stores and ammunition, as well as the 44-gun frigate USS Columbia and the 18 gun USS Argus both new vessels nearing completion.
Less than a day after the attack began, a sudden heavy thunderstorm put out most of the fires. A tornado passed through the center of the capital, lifting two cannons before dropping them several yards away, killing British troops and American civilians. The storm forced the British troops to return to their ships, many of which were badly damaged. The occupation of Washington lasted only about 26 hours.
President Madison returned to Washington by September 1, on which date he issued as proclamation calling on citizens to defend the District of Columbia. Congress returned and assembled in special session on September 19. Due to the destruction of the Capitol and other public buildings, they initially met in the Post and Patent Office building.
James Monroe, who had been Secretary of State under Madison, was critical of Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr., who had failed to heed Monroe's warnings about the vulnerability of the capitol. Shortly thereafter, Armstrong was removed from his position and Monroe served concurrently as Secretary of State and Secretary of War.