The Importance of Being Washington
In the rotunda of the Capitol Building there is a painting by John Trumbull entitled "General George Washington Resigning His Commission." It marks a significant historical event, as the general who commanded the army whose victory created a nation declined the opportunity to become the monarch of that nation. Washington certainly was popular enough to do so, and he had the support of his army, if he had been possessed of kingly aspirations. But he did not. Washington wisely resigned his commission at the end of the war and turned the governing of the nation over to civilian authority.
In the summer of 1779, the tide in the Revolutionary War was turning in favor of the Continental Army, led by General George Washington. At Washington's direction, General John Sullivan carried out a campaign that destroyed at least 40 Iroquois villages in central and upstate New York. The Iroquois were British allies who had been raiding American settlements, and "the Sullivan Expedition" robbed the British of a valuable ally in the war.
In July 1780, 5,000 veteran French troops led by the Comte de Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island to aid the Continental Army. French naval forces landed, led by Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse. Washington had initially planned to take the fight to the British in New York, but Rochambeau advised that the army of General Cornwallis in Virginia was a better target and de Grasse followed Rochambeau's advice and sailed to the Virginia Coast. Washington agreed that Rochambeau's proposed strategy was a better one and after leaving the false impression that he was taking his forces to fight General Clinton in New York, he also headed south to Virginia instead.
These combined forces, under Washington's leadership, delivered the final blow to the British in 1781, after a French naval victory allowed these forces to trap the British army in Virginia. The British surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, marked the end of major fighting in continental North America. Cornwallis failed to appear at the official surrender ceremony, sending General Charles Oharrow as his proxy. This was intended as a sign of disrespect, as Cornwallis would not recognize Washington as a peer commander. Refusing to accept the surrender from a delegate, Washington had General Benjamin Lincoln accept the surrender.
After Yorktown, the British still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston and Savannah, together with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy soon departed, and the Americans were left to fend for themselves, with an empty treasury and unpaid soldiers. Washington was able to dispel unrest by suppressing a threatened uprising in the army known as "the Newburgh Conspiracy" in March 1783. The Newburgh Conspiracy was a planned military coup led by officers in the Continental Army. The conspiracy may have been instigated by members in the Congress of the Confederation, who circulated an anonymous letter in the army camp at Newburgh, New York, on March 10, 1783. Soldiers were unhappy that they had not been paid for some time and that pensions that had been promised remained unfunded. The letter suggested that they should take unspecified action against Congress to resolve the issue. The letter is believed to have been written by Major John Armstrong, aide to General Horatio Gates, the latter being a competitor of Washington's for command of the army.
Washington was able to put a halt to any serious talk of rebellion when he made an emotional address to his officers asking them to support the supremacy of Congress. Not long afterward, Congress approved a compromise agreement that it had previously rejected, funding some of the pay arrears, and granting soldiers five years of full pay instead of a lifetime pension of half pay.
The initial peace treaty articles with the British were ratified in April, 1783. A recently formed Congressional committee, chaired by Alexander Hamilton, was considering plans for a peacetime army. On May 2, 1783, Washington submitted his opinion to the Committee. Hamilton's proposal was defeated in Congress in two votes held in May and October of 1783, with an amended proposal also being rejected in April 1784.
Under the Treaty of Paris, signed in September of 1783, Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States. Following this, Washington disbanded his army and, on November 2, gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers. On November 25, the British evacuated New York City. Many speculated that with the British gone, Washington might appoint himself as a military dictator of the new nation, a new King. Instead, on December 23, Washington formally resigned his commission as Commander-in-chief of the army. He said:
"I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping."
Historians have since recognized the significance and the magnanimity of Washington's resignation. It marked the first time that the nation had transitioned from wartime to peacetime, and it was unique in that the military did not exert more control over the newly formed government. Instead, Washington put his faith in democracy. King George III called Washington "the greatest character of the age" because of this.
Washington retired to his home at Mount Vernon, but his retirement was short-lived. He was persuaded to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787, where he was unanimously elected president of the Convention. He did participate in the debates very much, but his gravitas helped to maintained order and to keep the delegates focused on their task at hand. The delegates created the office of the presidency, and had Washington in mind for the position. Following the Convention, many were convinced many to vote for ratification of the new Constitution because it had Washington's support. The Constitution was ultimately ratified by all thirteen states.
The Electoral College elected Washington unanimously as the first president in 1789. To this day he remains the only president to have received 100 percent of the electoral votes. John Adams was elected Vice President. At his inauguration, Washington took the oath of office as the first President of the United States of America on April 30, 1789, on the balcony of Federal Hall in New York City. The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year, a large sum in 1789. Washington declined the salary, considering such remuneration to be contrary to what should be expected from a public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he was convinced to accept the payment, in order to avoid setting a precedent in which the presidency would be seen as open only to independently wealthy individuals.
Washington was aware that everything he did set a precedent. He was attentive to the formalities of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were republican and did not resemble the practices in European royal courts. He preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names proposed by the Senate.
Washington was an able administrator. He excelled at delegation and as a judge of talent and character. He established many of the practices and procedures that became part of the office of President, such as messages to Congress and a cabinet form of government. He also gave the example of tolerance of opposition voices and of a smooth transition of power to his successor. After reluctantly serving a second term, Washington refused to run for a third, establishing the customary policy of a maximum of two terms for a president. When this tradition was broken by the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt to a third term in 1940, Congress and the states responded by codifying the traditional two term limit for a president established by Washington as the Twenty-second Amendment.
In the summer of 1779, the tide in the Revolutionary War was turning in favor of the Continental Army, led by General George Washington. At Washington's direction, General John Sullivan carried out a campaign that destroyed at least 40 Iroquois villages in central and upstate New York. The Iroquois were British allies who had been raiding American settlements, and "the Sullivan Expedition" robbed the British of a valuable ally in the war.
In July 1780, 5,000 veteran French troops led by the Comte de Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island to aid the Continental Army. French naval forces landed, led by Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse. Washington had initially planned to take the fight to the British in New York, but Rochambeau advised that the army of General Cornwallis in Virginia was a better target and de Grasse followed Rochambeau's advice and sailed to the Virginia Coast. Washington agreed that Rochambeau's proposed strategy was a better one and after leaving the false impression that he was taking his forces to fight General Clinton in New York, he also headed south to Virginia instead.
These combined forces, under Washington's leadership, delivered the final blow to the British in 1781, after a French naval victory allowed these forces to trap the British army in Virginia. The British surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, marked the end of major fighting in continental North America. Cornwallis failed to appear at the official surrender ceremony, sending General Charles Oharrow as his proxy. This was intended as a sign of disrespect, as Cornwallis would not recognize Washington as a peer commander. Refusing to accept the surrender from a delegate, Washington had General Benjamin Lincoln accept the surrender.
After Yorktown, the British still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston and Savannah, together with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy soon departed, and the Americans were left to fend for themselves, with an empty treasury and unpaid soldiers. Washington was able to dispel unrest by suppressing a threatened uprising in the army known as "the Newburgh Conspiracy" in March 1783. The Newburgh Conspiracy was a planned military coup led by officers in the Continental Army. The conspiracy may have been instigated by members in the Congress of the Confederation, who circulated an anonymous letter in the army camp at Newburgh, New York, on March 10, 1783. Soldiers were unhappy that they had not been paid for some time and that pensions that had been promised remained unfunded. The letter suggested that they should take unspecified action against Congress to resolve the issue. The letter is believed to have been written by Major John Armstrong, aide to General Horatio Gates, the latter being a competitor of Washington's for command of the army.
Washington was able to put a halt to any serious talk of rebellion when he made an emotional address to his officers asking them to support the supremacy of Congress. Not long afterward, Congress approved a compromise agreement that it had previously rejected, funding some of the pay arrears, and granting soldiers five years of full pay instead of a lifetime pension of half pay.
The initial peace treaty articles with the British were ratified in April, 1783. A recently formed Congressional committee, chaired by Alexander Hamilton, was considering plans for a peacetime army. On May 2, 1783, Washington submitted his opinion to the Committee. Hamilton's proposal was defeated in Congress in two votes held in May and October of 1783, with an amended proposal also being rejected in April 1784.
Under the Treaty of Paris, signed in September of 1783, Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States. Following this, Washington disbanded his army and, on November 2, gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers. On November 25, the British evacuated New York City. Many speculated that with the British gone, Washington might appoint himself as a military dictator of the new nation, a new King. Instead, on December 23, Washington formally resigned his commission as Commander-in-chief of the army. He said:
"I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping."
Historians have since recognized the significance and the magnanimity of Washington's resignation. It marked the first time that the nation had transitioned from wartime to peacetime, and it was unique in that the military did not exert more control over the newly formed government. Instead, Washington put his faith in democracy. King George III called Washington "the greatest character of the age" because of this.
Washington retired to his home at Mount Vernon, but his retirement was short-lived. He was persuaded to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787, where he was unanimously elected president of the Convention. He did participate in the debates very much, but his gravitas helped to maintained order and to keep the delegates focused on their task at hand. The delegates created the office of the presidency, and had Washington in mind for the position. Following the Convention, many were convinced many to vote for ratification of the new Constitution because it had Washington's support. The Constitution was ultimately ratified by all thirteen states.
The Electoral College elected Washington unanimously as the first president in 1789. To this day he remains the only president to have received 100 percent of the electoral votes. John Adams was elected Vice President. At his inauguration, Washington took the oath of office as the first President of the United States of America on April 30, 1789, on the balcony of Federal Hall in New York City. The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year, a large sum in 1789. Washington declined the salary, considering such remuneration to be contrary to what should be expected from a public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he was convinced to accept the payment, in order to avoid setting a precedent in which the presidency would be seen as open only to independently wealthy individuals.
Washington was aware that everything he did set a precedent. He was attentive to the formalities of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were republican and did not resemble the practices in European royal courts. He preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names proposed by the Senate.
Washington was an able administrator. He excelled at delegation and as a judge of talent and character. He established many of the practices and procedures that became part of the office of President, such as messages to Congress and a cabinet form of government. He also gave the example of tolerance of opposition voices and of a smooth transition of power to his successor. After reluctantly serving a second term, Washington refused to run for a third, establishing the customary policy of a maximum of two terms for a president. When this tradition was broken by the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt to a third term in 1940, Congress and the states responded by codifying the traditional two term limit for a president established by Washington as the Twenty-second Amendment.