Mid-Term Elections: 1898
History generally records William McKinley as being a principled man and a man who did his duty and was concerned about the interests of all factions of his society. He was not always popular as a politician, and while serving in Congress, the McKinley Tariff bill that he championed protected factory workers and other manufacturing jobs, but was blamed for inflation and a subsequent recession. He lost his seat in Congress in 1890, in part due to gerrymandering, but was elected Governor of Ohio in 1892, and four years later became his party's nominee for President of the United States, winning the Presidency convincingly by a majority of 271 to 176 in the Electoral College.
In his inaugural address on March 4, 1897, McKinley warned against U.S. foreign interventions, and told his audience, "We want no wars of conquest. We must avoid the temptation of territorial aggression." But despite this expressed intention, the nation would soon find itself at war with an unlikely enemy over an island south of Florida.
When McKinley took office, rebels in Cuba were waging a fight for freedom from Spanish colonial rule. By 1895, the conflict had become a war for independence. The United States was a major trading partner with Cuba and the Cuban rebellion had adversely affected the American economy, causing Americans to take notice of what was occurring in Cuba. As the rebellion progressed, Spanish reprisals grew harsher. Spanish soldiers began removing Cuban families to guarded camps near Spanish military bases. The rebels appealed to the sympathy of the American people, and public opinion was strongly in favor of the rebels.
McKinley's predecessor, Grover Cleveland, had supported Spanish control of Cuba, fearing that Cuban independence would lead to intervention by another European power. McKinley also wanted to avoid becoming involved militarily, and he hoped to convince Spain to grant Cuba independence, or at least a measure of autonomy. The United States and Spain began negotiations regarding Cuba in 1897, but Spain was unwilling to move in any significant measure.
Business interests opposed war, fearing the damage that a long, expensive war posed to the nation's economic recovery from the Panic of 1893. But church leaders and activists wrote hundreds of thousands of letters to politicians calling for intervention in Cuba on humanitarian grounds.
In January 1898, Spain promised some concessions to the rebels. American consul Fitzhugh Lee reported riots in Havana, and so McKinley obtained Spanish permission to send the battleship USS Maine to Havana to protect American interests there, On February 15, the Maine exploded and sank with 266 men killed. Public opinion was quick to blame the explosion on Spain, but McKinley insisted that a court of inquiry determine whether or not the explosion of the Maine was accidental. On March 20, the court ruled that the Maine was blown up by an underwater mine. This led to pressure for war by Congress and in the press. McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence, but Spain held firm on its refusal to consider McKinley's proposals.
On April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. Congress declared war on April 20. A rider to the declaration of war known as the Teller Amendment disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba. European powers tried to pressure Spain to negotiate. Great Britain supported the American position, but Spain ignored these appeals and now fought a war against two foes: the rebels and the Americans.
Contemporary technology such as the telegraph and the telephone gave McKinley a greater contact with day-to-day management of the war. He set up a war room and used the new technologies to direct the army's and navy's movements. McKinley did not trust the Army's commanding general, Nelson A. Miles and sought advice from other sources such as Miles's predecessor, General John Schofield, and later from Adjutant General Henry Clarke Corbin. McKinley called for an expansion of the Regular Army from 25,000 to 61,000. Volunteers swelled the number of those serving in the army during the wat to 278,000 men. McKinley used the war as an opportunity to bring North and South together again, as white Southerners enthusiastically supported the war effort. One senior command even went to a former Confederate General.
On April 24, McKinley ordered the Asiatic Squadron under the command of Commodore George Dewey to launch an attack on the Philippines, another Spanish colony. On May 1, Dewey's force defeated the Spanish navy at the Battle of Manila Bay, destroying Spanish naval power in the Pacific. The next month, McKinley increased the number of troops sent to the Philippines and granted the force's commander, Major General Wesley Merritt, the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes. The troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898.
Back at home, a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered near Tampa, Florida, for an invasion of Cuba. The U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba in April while the Army prepared to invade the island, on which Spain maintained a garrison of approximately 80,000. Diseases such as malaria were a major problem and for every American soldier killed in combat in 1898, seven died of disease. The U.S. Army Medical Corps made medical advancements in treating tropical diseases. William Jennings Bryan had volunteered as a Colonel in the Militia, but spent the entire war in Florida.
The combat army, led by Major General William Rufus Shafter, sailed from Florida on June 20, landing near Santiago de Cuba two days later. Following a skirmish at Las Guasimas on June 24, Shafter's army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the Battle of San Juan Hill. In an intense day-long battle, the American force was victorious, although both sides suffered heavy casualties. Theodore Roosevelt had resigned as assistant secretary of the Navy, and he and Dr. Leonard Wood led the "Rough Riders" into combat.
After the American victory at San Juan Hill, the Spanish Caribbean squadron, which had been sheltering in Santiago's harbor, broke for the open sea. The Spanish fleet was intercepted and destroyed in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, the largest naval battle of the war. Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago, which surrendered on July 17, placing Cuba American control. McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of Puerto Rico, which met little resistance when it landed in July. The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible, and the Spanish government knew it was defeated.
On July 22, the Spanish authorized Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador to the United States, to represent Spain in negotiating peace. McKinley's Cabinet unanimously agreed that Spain had to leave Cuba and Puerto Rico. A debate arose over whether or not to annex the Philippines, but McKinley felt that he had no choice but to annex these islands, because he believed Japan would take control of them if the U.S. did not.
Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12, and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898. The talks continued while the mid-term elections were taking place and on December 18, the Treaty of Paris was signed. The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of Guam, and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba. The United States agreed to pay Spain $20 million.
In the mid-term elections, the President's party lost some support to the Democrats, but not much and the Republicans were able to maintain control of both Houses on Congress. Democrats gained 37 seats in the House of Representatives, but the Republicans lost only 19. The Populist Party lost all 17 seats it had held, and the Republican majority had shrunk from 206 to 187, while the Democratic minority grew from 124 to 161 seats, and 2 "Silver Republicans" kept their seats.
In the Senate meanwhile, the 17th Amendment had not yet been passed, and Senators were still chosen by state legislatures. Republicans gained 6 seats in the Senate, while Democrats lost 9.
Americans were unsure what to make of growing expansionism and were focused on the same issues that had dominated the 1896 election: tariffs, bimetallism and recovery from the panic of 1893. But as the economy recovered, Republicans would regain some of their losses in the House and McKinley would be re-elected two years later in the election of 1900.
In his inaugural address on March 4, 1897, McKinley warned against U.S. foreign interventions, and told his audience, "We want no wars of conquest. We must avoid the temptation of territorial aggression." But despite this expressed intention, the nation would soon find itself at war with an unlikely enemy over an island south of Florida.
When McKinley took office, rebels in Cuba were waging a fight for freedom from Spanish colonial rule. By 1895, the conflict had become a war for independence. The United States was a major trading partner with Cuba and the Cuban rebellion had adversely affected the American economy, causing Americans to take notice of what was occurring in Cuba. As the rebellion progressed, Spanish reprisals grew harsher. Spanish soldiers began removing Cuban families to guarded camps near Spanish military bases. The rebels appealed to the sympathy of the American people, and public opinion was strongly in favor of the rebels.
McKinley's predecessor, Grover Cleveland, had supported Spanish control of Cuba, fearing that Cuban independence would lead to intervention by another European power. McKinley also wanted to avoid becoming involved militarily, and he hoped to convince Spain to grant Cuba independence, or at least a measure of autonomy. The United States and Spain began negotiations regarding Cuba in 1897, but Spain was unwilling to move in any significant measure.
Business interests opposed war, fearing the damage that a long, expensive war posed to the nation's economic recovery from the Panic of 1893. But church leaders and activists wrote hundreds of thousands of letters to politicians calling for intervention in Cuba on humanitarian grounds.
In January 1898, Spain promised some concessions to the rebels. American consul Fitzhugh Lee reported riots in Havana, and so McKinley obtained Spanish permission to send the battleship USS Maine to Havana to protect American interests there, On February 15, the Maine exploded and sank with 266 men killed. Public opinion was quick to blame the explosion on Spain, but McKinley insisted that a court of inquiry determine whether or not the explosion of the Maine was accidental. On March 20, the court ruled that the Maine was blown up by an underwater mine. This led to pressure for war by Congress and in the press. McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence, but Spain held firm on its refusal to consider McKinley's proposals.
On April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. Congress declared war on April 20. A rider to the declaration of war known as the Teller Amendment disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba. European powers tried to pressure Spain to negotiate. Great Britain supported the American position, but Spain ignored these appeals and now fought a war against two foes: the rebels and the Americans.
Contemporary technology such as the telegraph and the telephone gave McKinley a greater contact with day-to-day management of the war. He set up a war room and used the new technologies to direct the army's and navy's movements. McKinley did not trust the Army's commanding general, Nelson A. Miles and sought advice from other sources such as Miles's predecessor, General John Schofield, and later from Adjutant General Henry Clarke Corbin. McKinley called for an expansion of the Regular Army from 25,000 to 61,000. Volunteers swelled the number of those serving in the army during the wat to 278,000 men. McKinley used the war as an opportunity to bring North and South together again, as white Southerners enthusiastically supported the war effort. One senior command even went to a former Confederate General.
On April 24, McKinley ordered the Asiatic Squadron under the command of Commodore George Dewey to launch an attack on the Philippines, another Spanish colony. On May 1, Dewey's force defeated the Spanish navy at the Battle of Manila Bay, destroying Spanish naval power in the Pacific. The next month, McKinley increased the number of troops sent to the Philippines and granted the force's commander, Major General Wesley Merritt, the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes. The troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898.
Back at home, a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered near Tampa, Florida, for an invasion of Cuba. The U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba in April while the Army prepared to invade the island, on which Spain maintained a garrison of approximately 80,000. Diseases such as malaria were a major problem and for every American soldier killed in combat in 1898, seven died of disease. The U.S. Army Medical Corps made medical advancements in treating tropical diseases. William Jennings Bryan had volunteered as a Colonel in the Militia, but spent the entire war in Florida.
The combat army, led by Major General William Rufus Shafter, sailed from Florida on June 20, landing near Santiago de Cuba two days later. Following a skirmish at Las Guasimas on June 24, Shafter's army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the Battle of San Juan Hill. In an intense day-long battle, the American force was victorious, although both sides suffered heavy casualties. Theodore Roosevelt had resigned as assistant secretary of the Navy, and he and Dr. Leonard Wood led the "Rough Riders" into combat.
After the American victory at San Juan Hill, the Spanish Caribbean squadron, which had been sheltering in Santiago's harbor, broke for the open sea. The Spanish fleet was intercepted and destroyed in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, the largest naval battle of the war. Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago, which surrendered on July 17, placing Cuba American control. McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of Puerto Rico, which met little resistance when it landed in July. The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible, and the Spanish government knew it was defeated.
On July 22, the Spanish authorized Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador to the United States, to represent Spain in negotiating peace. McKinley's Cabinet unanimously agreed that Spain had to leave Cuba and Puerto Rico. A debate arose over whether or not to annex the Philippines, but McKinley felt that he had no choice but to annex these islands, because he believed Japan would take control of them if the U.S. did not.
Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12, and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898. The talks continued while the mid-term elections were taking place and on December 18, the Treaty of Paris was signed. The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of Guam, and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba. The United States agreed to pay Spain $20 million.
In the mid-term elections, the President's party lost some support to the Democrats, but not much and the Republicans were able to maintain control of both Houses on Congress. Democrats gained 37 seats in the House of Representatives, but the Republicans lost only 19. The Populist Party lost all 17 seats it had held, and the Republican majority had shrunk from 206 to 187, while the Democratic minority grew from 124 to 161 seats, and 2 "Silver Republicans" kept their seats.
In the Senate meanwhile, the 17th Amendment had not yet been passed, and Senators were still chosen by state legislatures. Republicans gained 6 seats in the Senate, while Democrats lost 9.
Americans were unsure what to make of growing expansionism and were focused on the same issues that had dominated the 1896 election: tariffs, bimetallism and recovery from the panic of 1893. But as the economy recovered, Republicans would regain some of their losses in the House and McKinley would be re-elected two years later in the election of 1900.