The First 100 Days: Herbert Hoover
In the election of 1928, the Republicans won an overwhelming victory, with Herbert Hoover doing especially well outside of the large urban areas of the country. Hoover received 58 percent of the popular vote and received a whopping 444 electoral votes, compared with 87 for his opponent, New York Governor Al Smith. Hoover won 40 states, including Smith's home state. Since before the Civil War, the south had usually been solidly Democratic, but Hoover succeeded in winning in five traditionally Democratic states. There were a number of reasons for Hoover's success. He had a good reputation as a very smart man who got things done. The economy was booming following two Republican administrations. The Democratic Party was deeply divided over religion (many Democrats refused to support Smith, the first Roman Catholic to run for President on behalf of a major political party) and prohibition. Hoover entered the presidency with everything seemingly going his way.
In November 1928, as President-elect, Hoover embarked on a ten-nation goodwill tour of Latin America. He delivered twenty-five speeches, almost all of which stressed his plans to reduce American political and military interference in Latin American affairs. He told his audiences that the United States would act as what he called a "good neighbor." During that tour, while Hoover was on a train crossing the Andes from Chile, Argentine police discovered and foiled a plot to bomb Hoover’s train as it crossed the Argentinian central plain.
Herbert Hoover was inaugurated as the nation's 31st president on March 4, 1929. The ceremony was held on the East Portico of the Capitol. Chief Justice (and former president) William Howard Taft administered the Oath of office. It was the first Inaugural ceremony recorded by newsreel cameras. A minor gaffe occurred when Taft misquoted the phrase in the oath "preserve, protect and defend" as "preserve, maintain and defend". Hoover's inaugural address projected an optimistic tone. Little did he imagine the Great depression that was to come, when he predicted that an end to poverty in the nation was near. He said "Given the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation." He talked about "disregard and disobedience of law" as being the most serious problem facing the nation, and ever the forward thinker, Hoover made several policy proposals in the areas of law enforcement and criminal justice, public education, and public health. He closed with an optimistic message, telling his audience:
"Ours is a land rich in resources; stimulating in its glorious beauty; filled with millions of happy homes; blessed with comfort and opportunity. In no nation are the institutions of progress more advanced. In no nation are the fruits of accomplishment more secure. In no nation is the government more worthy of respect. No country is more loved by its people. I have an abiding faith in their capacity, integrity and high purpose. I have no fears for the future of our country. It is bright with hope."
Hoover held a press conference on his first day in office, promising a "new phase of press relations". He asked the group of journalists to elect a committee to recommend improvements to the White House press conference. Hoover did not use a media spokesman. Instead he asked reporters to directly quote him and he gave them handouts with his statements ahead of time. In his first 120 days in office, he held more regular and frequent press conferences than any other President, before or since. However, this would change after the 1929 stock market crash, following which he greatly reduced his availability to the media. Like many of his successors, Hoover would come to view the press as an enemy.
Hoover began his presidency planning to reform the nation's regulatory system. He believed in limited regulations both for the federal bureaucracy and for the country's economic system. Hoover was a capitalist, but he came into office with a respect for labor, and believed in the need for balance among labor, capital, and the government.
Hoover said that he considered the presidency to be a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging public-private cooperation. He used the term "volunteerism" to describe this cooperation and he was opposed to governmental coercion or intervention, seeing this as an impediment to American individualism, creativity and self-reliance. Hoover believed in the use of commissions to study issues and propose solutions, but he also used his business connections to have many of those commissions sponsored by private donors rather than by the government. One of the commissions used by Hoover to take the pulse of the nation on various issues was the Research Committee on Social Trends.
After taking office, Hoover called Congress into session in an attempt to address the farm crisis that had affected the country throughout much of the 1920s. During World War I, farmers were encouraged to ramp up production of crops, but after the war a glut of agricultural products on the world market reduced the demand for American exports. This resulted in domestic overproduction and a drop in commodity prices. In June of 1929, during the fourth month of his term, Hoover signed the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, which established the Federal Farm Board to stabilize farm prices. It was one of the few major pieces of legislation Hoover signed before the onset of the Great Depression. This legislation had been contemplated during the Coolidge administration. Under President Calvin Coolidge, the Secretary of Agriculture William Marion Jardine wanted to come up with an alternative to the McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill. The plan was for the government to buy excess wheat. Under the Agricultural Marketing Act, the Federal Farm Board would loan money to state and local cooperatives, which in turn would help farmers control crop prices by avoiding surpluses. Hoover saw this as a better alternative to other proposals that would have directly subsidized farmers.
The issue of prohibition of alcohol was one that Hoover had to confront. The United States banned the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages nationwide in 1920 following the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment. President Hoover was a supporter of prohibition. He increased federal enforcement of it by signing the Increased Penalties Act which made even minor liquor violations felonies. Hoover also established the Wickersham Commission to make public policy recommendations regarding Prohibition. This commission later found widespread corruption and violations of Prohibition. The commission's exposure of brutal enforcement practices led to the reform of many police forces. In his inaugural address, Hoover said, regarding the enforcement of prohibition laws, "If citizens do not like a law, their duty as honest men and women is to discourage its violation; their right is openly to work for its repeal." As public opinion increasingly turned against Prohibition, more and more people flouted the law, and several states repealed state bans on alcoholic beverages. Hoover saw what was happening, but he insisted that federal and state authorities continue to uphold Prohibition. As he was doing so, a grassroots movement began working for prohibition's repeal.
At the start of Hoover's presidency, many people shared their president's optimism. The bullish stock market climbed even higher when Hoover took office. He was suspicious about the rapid rise in the market, and for good reason. During his first year in office, the Stock Market Crash of 1929 (also known as Black Tuesday) occurred, and the worldwide economy began to spiral downward into the Great Depression. The causes of the Great Depression remain a matter of debate, but for Hoover the lack of confidence in the financial system was the fundamental economic problem facing the nation. At first he tried to avoid direct federal intervention, believing that the best way to bolster the economy was through the strengthening of businesses such as banks and railroads. He was also concerned that allowing individuals to rely on the government would permanently weaken the country. Instead, Hoover believed that local governments and the sector were the key institutions to fix the problem.
In the days following Black Tuesday, Hoover gathered business and labor leaders, and asked them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages. He believed this would be a short recession similar to the one that had occurred in 1920. But he later tried using some government intervention after public sector cooperation was not forthcoming. He had Congress kick in an extra $100 million to continue the Federal Farm Board lending and purchasing policies. He also supported new public works projects, but his fear of budget deficits led him to oppose expansive projects such. In the following year of 1930, Hoover established the President's Organization for Unemployment Relief, which tried to incentive companies to hire the unemployed.
Hoover had taken office hoping to raise agricultural tariffs in order to help farmers reeling from the farm crisis of the 1920s. But his effort to raise agricultural tariffs led to increased tariffs for other goods, something that was not a good idea for a nation dealing with a depression. In June 1930, over the objection of many economists, Congress approved the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act. The legislation raised tariffs on thousands of imported items. The intent of the act was to encourage the purchase of American-made products by increasing the cost of imported goods, while raising revenue for the federal government and protecting farmers. Hoover reluctantly signed the bill into law, even though he had only wanted it to cover agricultural products. It only made matters worse, as economic depression had spread worldwide. Nations such as Canada, France and others, retaliated by raising tariffs on imports from the U.S. The result was to contract international trade, and worsen the Depression. Progressive Republicans such as Senator Borah were outraged when Hoover signed the bill, and he lost another badly needed constituency of support.
Hoover entered the presidency convening an image of being someone with the brilliance required to push the nation into even greater prosperity. The predictions of his outstanding presidency were not to be, as the economy and Hoover's inability to work well with Congress and others all combined to create a presidency that history would come to judge as ineffective and disappointing.
In November 1928, as President-elect, Hoover embarked on a ten-nation goodwill tour of Latin America. He delivered twenty-five speeches, almost all of which stressed his plans to reduce American political and military interference in Latin American affairs. He told his audiences that the United States would act as what he called a "good neighbor." During that tour, while Hoover was on a train crossing the Andes from Chile, Argentine police discovered and foiled a plot to bomb Hoover’s train as it crossed the Argentinian central plain.
Herbert Hoover was inaugurated as the nation's 31st president on March 4, 1929. The ceremony was held on the East Portico of the Capitol. Chief Justice (and former president) William Howard Taft administered the Oath of office. It was the first Inaugural ceremony recorded by newsreel cameras. A minor gaffe occurred when Taft misquoted the phrase in the oath "preserve, protect and defend" as "preserve, maintain and defend". Hoover's inaugural address projected an optimistic tone. Little did he imagine the Great depression that was to come, when he predicted that an end to poverty in the nation was near. He said "Given the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation." He talked about "disregard and disobedience of law" as being the most serious problem facing the nation, and ever the forward thinker, Hoover made several policy proposals in the areas of law enforcement and criminal justice, public education, and public health. He closed with an optimistic message, telling his audience:
"Ours is a land rich in resources; stimulating in its glorious beauty; filled with millions of happy homes; blessed with comfort and opportunity. In no nation are the institutions of progress more advanced. In no nation are the fruits of accomplishment more secure. In no nation is the government more worthy of respect. No country is more loved by its people. I have an abiding faith in their capacity, integrity and high purpose. I have no fears for the future of our country. It is bright with hope."
Hoover held a press conference on his first day in office, promising a "new phase of press relations". He asked the group of journalists to elect a committee to recommend improvements to the White House press conference. Hoover did not use a media spokesman. Instead he asked reporters to directly quote him and he gave them handouts with his statements ahead of time. In his first 120 days in office, he held more regular and frequent press conferences than any other President, before or since. However, this would change after the 1929 stock market crash, following which he greatly reduced his availability to the media. Like many of his successors, Hoover would come to view the press as an enemy.
Hoover began his presidency planning to reform the nation's regulatory system. He believed in limited regulations both for the federal bureaucracy and for the country's economic system. Hoover was a capitalist, but he came into office with a respect for labor, and believed in the need for balance among labor, capital, and the government.
Hoover said that he considered the presidency to be a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging public-private cooperation. He used the term "volunteerism" to describe this cooperation and he was opposed to governmental coercion or intervention, seeing this as an impediment to American individualism, creativity and self-reliance. Hoover believed in the use of commissions to study issues and propose solutions, but he also used his business connections to have many of those commissions sponsored by private donors rather than by the government. One of the commissions used by Hoover to take the pulse of the nation on various issues was the Research Committee on Social Trends.
After taking office, Hoover called Congress into session in an attempt to address the farm crisis that had affected the country throughout much of the 1920s. During World War I, farmers were encouraged to ramp up production of crops, but after the war a glut of agricultural products on the world market reduced the demand for American exports. This resulted in domestic overproduction and a drop in commodity prices. In June of 1929, during the fourth month of his term, Hoover signed the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, which established the Federal Farm Board to stabilize farm prices. It was one of the few major pieces of legislation Hoover signed before the onset of the Great Depression. This legislation had been contemplated during the Coolidge administration. Under President Calvin Coolidge, the Secretary of Agriculture William Marion Jardine wanted to come up with an alternative to the McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill. The plan was for the government to buy excess wheat. Under the Agricultural Marketing Act, the Federal Farm Board would loan money to state and local cooperatives, which in turn would help farmers control crop prices by avoiding surpluses. Hoover saw this as a better alternative to other proposals that would have directly subsidized farmers.
The issue of prohibition of alcohol was one that Hoover had to confront. The United States banned the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages nationwide in 1920 following the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment. President Hoover was a supporter of prohibition. He increased federal enforcement of it by signing the Increased Penalties Act which made even minor liquor violations felonies. Hoover also established the Wickersham Commission to make public policy recommendations regarding Prohibition. This commission later found widespread corruption and violations of Prohibition. The commission's exposure of brutal enforcement practices led to the reform of many police forces. In his inaugural address, Hoover said, regarding the enforcement of prohibition laws, "If citizens do not like a law, their duty as honest men and women is to discourage its violation; their right is openly to work for its repeal." As public opinion increasingly turned against Prohibition, more and more people flouted the law, and several states repealed state bans on alcoholic beverages. Hoover saw what was happening, but he insisted that federal and state authorities continue to uphold Prohibition. As he was doing so, a grassroots movement began working for prohibition's repeal.
At the start of Hoover's presidency, many people shared their president's optimism. The bullish stock market climbed even higher when Hoover took office. He was suspicious about the rapid rise in the market, and for good reason. During his first year in office, the Stock Market Crash of 1929 (also known as Black Tuesday) occurred, and the worldwide economy began to spiral downward into the Great Depression. The causes of the Great Depression remain a matter of debate, but for Hoover the lack of confidence in the financial system was the fundamental economic problem facing the nation. At first he tried to avoid direct federal intervention, believing that the best way to bolster the economy was through the strengthening of businesses such as banks and railroads. He was also concerned that allowing individuals to rely on the government would permanently weaken the country. Instead, Hoover believed that local governments and the sector were the key institutions to fix the problem.
In the days following Black Tuesday, Hoover gathered business and labor leaders, and asked them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages. He believed this would be a short recession similar to the one that had occurred in 1920. But he later tried using some government intervention after public sector cooperation was not forthcoming. He had Congress kick in an extra $100 million to continue the Federal Farm Board lending and purchasing policies. He also supported new public works projects, but his fear of budget deficits led him to oppose expansive projects such. In the following year of 1930, Hoover established the President's Organization for Unemployment Relief, which tried to incentive companies to hire the unemployed.
Hoover had taken office hoping to raise agricultural tariffs in order to help farmers reeling from the farm crisis of the 1920s. But his effort to raise agricultural tariffs led to increased tariffs for other goods, something that was not a good idea for a nation dealing with a depression. In June 1930, over the objection of many economists, Congress approved the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act. The legislation raised tariffs on thousands of imported items. The intent of the act was to encourage the purchase of American-made products by increasing the cost of imported goods, while raising revenue for the federal government and protecting farmers. Hoover reluctantly signed the bill into law, even though he had only wanted it to cover agricultural products. It only made matters worse, as economic depression had spread worldwide. Nations such as Canada, France and others, retaliated by raising tariffs on imports from the U.S. The result was to contract international trade, and worsen the Depression. Progressive Republicans such as Senator Borah were outraged when Hoover signed the bill, and he lost another badly needed constituency of support.
Hoover entered the presidency convening an image of being someone with the brilliance required to push the nation into even greater prosperity. The predictions of his outstanding presidency were not to be, as the economy and Hoover's inability to work well with Congress and others all combined to create a presidency that history would come to judge as ineffective and disappointing.