The First 100 Days: James K. Polk
John Lennon famously wrote, "life is what happens to us when we're making other plans." In 1844, James K. Polk planned on being selected as the Democratic Party's candidate for Vice-President. But after eight ballots at the party convention in Baltimore, no candidate could attract enough support for the necessary two-thirds majority. On the ninth ballot, the party nominated Polk as their candidate for president. Polk went on to win the presidential election. He received 170 Electoral College votes. His opponent Henry Clay won 105. Polk received 49.5% of the popular vote.
During the transition period, President John Tyler pressed on to complete his plans for the annexation of Texas. The Senate had defeated an earlier treaty that would annex the republic. Tyler was able to get a joint resolution passed through both houses of Congress. Prior to getting the resolution passed, a disagreement arose about the extension of slavery. Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri and Secretary of State John C. Calhoun disagreed on the best way to annex Texas. Polk became involved in negotiations to break the impasse and with Polk's help, the annexation resolution narrowly cleared the Senate. Two days before Polk's inauguration, Tyler made a formal offer of annexation to Texas.
Polk was inaugurated as the 13th President of the United States on March 4, 1845, in a ceremony held on the East Portico of the United States Capitol. Chief Justice Roger Tanney administered the oath of office. It was the first inauguration to be reported by telegraph and to be shown in a newspaper illustration. He gave the second longest inaugural address (second only to William Henry Harrison) in which he spoke about his plans for the nation's westward expansion. He said that the addition of Texas was important to the Union and talked about his plans to expand the nation even further west.
Polk was a micro-manager. He held Cabinet meetings twice a week, but Polk involved himself in the most minute details of the departments of his government. In selecting his cabinet, he followed Andrew Jackson's advice to avoid individuals who had presidential aspirations. The one exception to this was James Buchanan, who was selected for the prestigious position of Secretary of State. He chose Senator Robert J. Walker of Mississippi as Secretary of the Treasury. His close friend and key advisor Cave Johnson was selected as Postmaster General. He chose historian George Bancroft, who had placed a crucial role in Polk's nomination, as Secretary of the Navy. His cabinet met with the approval of his mentor, Andrew Jackson, who Polk met with in January 1845 for the last time. Jackson died in June 1845. Buchanan's selection for Secretary of State caused resentment from Vice President George Dallas, who was a rival of Buchanan. Polk chose New Yorker William L. Marcy, as Secretary of War. John Mason, who had been Navy Secretary for President Tyler, was chosen as Attorney General.
According to a story told decades later by George Bancroft, Polk set four clearly defined goals for his administration: (1) reestablish the Independent Treasury System; (2) Reduce tariffs; (3) acquire some or all of the Oregon Territory; and (4) acquire California and New Mexico from Mexico. While the story provided the alternative band They Might Be Giants with the inspiration for a song, the accuracy of this story is questioned by author Tom Chaffin in his book Met His Every Goal: James K. Polk and the Legends of Manifest Destiny (reviewed here in this community).
Since the Treaty of 1818 was signed during the Presidency of James Monroe, the Oregon Country was under the joint occupation and control of Great Britain and the United States. Previous U.S. administrations had offered to divide the region along the 49th parallel, which was not acceptable to Britain, who wanted to maintain its commercial interests along the Columbia River. Britain's preferred partition, which had the British keeping Puget Sound and all lands North of the Columbia River, was unacceptable to Polk. Edward Everett, who had been President Tyler's ambassador to Great Britain, had proposed a new solution that would divide most of the territory at the 49th parallel but grant Vancouver Island to the British. Tyler's term ended before negotiations could proceed. On taking office, Polk announced that he viewed the American claim to the Oregon Territory as "clear and unquestionable". His rhetoric was seen as provocative of threats of war to the British. While his talk was tough, Polk knew that war with the British as unwise and unnecessary. Instead, Polk and Buchanan opened up negotiations with the British. Polk once again proposed a division along the 49th parallel, which was immediately rejected by the British ambassador, Richard Pakenham.
After Pakenham's rejection, Polk broke off negotiations. During the election of 1844, the Democratic party's platform called for all of Oregon up to the 54-40 line that marked the southern boundary of Russian Alaska. A new slogan of "54-40 or fight!" became a popular rallying cry among Democrats. Polk continued his hawkish rhetoric, hopeful that it would induce a favorable settlement. As 1845 came to an end, Polk planned to give Britain a one-year notice (as required in the Treaty of 1818) of his intention to terminate the joint occupancy of Oregon. The issue would eventually become resolved in 1846 when the present-day border of the 49th parallel was agreed upon, with all of Vancouver Island becoming British property.
When Congress passed its joint resolution for the annexation of Texas on February 28, 1845, Polk's first major decision in office was whether or not to recall Tyler's emissary to Texas, who delivered an offer of annexation to the Texans. He chose to allow the emissary to continue his mission, with the hope that Texas would accept the offer. Polk's Ambassador to Texas, Andrew Jackson Donelson sought to convince the Texan leaders to accept annexation under the terms proposed by the Tyler administration. Some Texas leaders disliked the terms because they gave public lands to the federal government. However, in July 1845, a convention in Austin, Texas ratified the annexation of Texas and later that year, in December of 1845, Polk signed a resolution annexing Texas. Texas became the 28th state in the union. This would lead to increased tensions with Mexico, which had never recognized Texan independence.
Following the Texan ratification of annexation, Polk began preparations for a potential war with Mexico over Texas. He sent an army led by General Zachary Taylor into Texas. Taylor was ordered to avoid provoking a war, but was told to prepare for war and respond to any Mexican breach of peace. He also sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico to purchase California for $20–40 million. Slidell arrived in Mexico City in December 1845. But the Mexicans refused to negotiate with him. A war with Mexico would begin the following spring.
In his inaugural address, Polk had called upon Congress to re-establish the Independent Treasury System. Under this system, government funds were held in the Treasury and not in banks or other financial institutions. President Van Buren had previously established a similar system, but it had been abolished during the Tyler administration. With the support of Senator Dixon Lewis, the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, Polk was able to push the Independent Treasury Act through Congress. It was signed into law on August 6, 1846. The act provided that the public revenues were to be retained in the Treasury building and in sub-treasuries in various cities, separate from private or state banks, to receive all government funds. The system would remain in place until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913.
Polk had taken an ambivalent position on the tariff during the 1844 campaign in order not to alienate northern votes. Polk was opposed to a high tariff and saw the protection of manufacturing interests as unfair to the south. When he became President, Polk directed Secretary of the Treasury Robert Walker to draft a new and lower tariff, which Polk submitted to Congress. After intense lobbying campaigns by both sides, the bill passed the House. The vote for the bill in the senate was deadlocked and Vice President Dallas was required to break the tie. In 1846, Polk signed the Walker Tariff into law, substantially reducing the rates that had been set by the Whig-backed Tariff of 1842. Polk's lowering of the tariff was popular in the South and West, but was despised by many protectionists in the Northeast, especially in the Vice-President's home state of Pennsylvania. The reduction of tariffs in the United States to a boom in trade with the British.
Polk kept his promise to serve only one term in office. As it was, his intense work ethic and his micromanaging left him exhausted. He lost weight and had deep lines on his face and dark circles under his eyes. He likely contracted cholera in New Orleans, Louisiana, on a goodwill tour of the South after leaving the White House. Polk died of cholera at his new home, Polk Place, in Nashville, Tennessee, on June 15, 1849, three months after leaving office.
During the transition period, President John Tyler pressed on to complete his plans for the annexation of Texas. The Senate had defeated an earlier treaty that would annex the republic. Tyler was able to get a joint resolution passed through both houses of Congress. Prior to getting the resolution passed, a disagreement arose about the extension of slavery. Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri and Secretary of State John C. Calhoun disagreed on the best way to annex Texas. Polk became involved in negotiations to break the impasse and with Polk's help, the annexation resolution narrowly cleared the Senate. Two days before Polk's inauguration, Tyler made a formal offer of annexation to Texas.
Polk was inaugurated as the 13th President of the United States on March 4, 1845, in a ceremony held on the East Portico of the United States Capitol. Chief Justice Roger Tanney administered the oath of office. It was the first inauguration to be reported by telegraph and to be shown in a newspaper illustration. He gave the second longest inaugural address (second only to William Henry Harrison) in which he spoke about his plans for the nation's westward expansion. He said that the addition of Texas was important to the Union and talked about his plans to expand the nation even further west.
Polk was a micro-manager. He held Cabinet meetings twice a week, but Polk involved himself in the most minute details of the departments of his government. In selecting his cabinet, he followed Andrew Jackson's advice to avoid individuals who had presidential aspirations. The one exception to this was James Buchanan, who was selected for the prestigious position of Secretary of State. He chose Senator Robert J. Walker of Mississippi as Secretary of the Treasury. His close friend and key advisor Cave Johnson was selected as Postmaster General. He chose historian George Bancroft, who had placed a crucial role in Polk's nomination, as Secretary of the Navy. His cabinet met with the approval of his mentor, Andrew Jackson, who Polk met with in January 1845 for the last time. Jackson died in June 1845. Buchanan's selection for Secretary of State caused resentment from Vice President George Dallas, who was a rival of Buchanan. Polk chose New Yorker William L. Marcy, as Secretary of War. John Mason, who had been Navy Secretary for President Tyler, was chosen as Attorney General.
According to a story told decades later by George Bancroft, Polk set four clearly defined goals for his administration: (1) reestablish the Independent Treasury System; (2) Reduce tariffs; (3) acquire some or all of the Oregon Territory; and (4) acquire California and New Mexico from Mexico. While the story provided the alternative band They Might Be Giants with the inspiration for a song, the accuracy of this story is questioned by author Tom Chaffin in his book Met His Every Goal: James K. Polk and the Legends of Manifest Destiny (reviewed here in this community).
Since the Treaty of 1818 was signed during the Presidency of James Monroe, the Oregon Country was under the joint occupation and control of Great Britain and the United States. Previous U.S. administrations had offered to divide the region along the 49th parallel, which was not acceptable to Britain, who wanted to maintain its commercial interests along the Columbia River. Britain's preferred partition, which had the British keeping Puget Sound and all lands North of the Columbia River, was unacceptable to Polk. Edward Everett, who had been President Tyler's ambassador to Great Britain, had proposed a new solution that would divide most of the territory at the 49th parallel but grant Vancouver Island to the British. Tyler's term ended before negotiations could proceed. On taking office, Polk announced that he viewed the American claim to the Oregon Territory as "clear and unquestionable". His rhetoric was seen as provocative of threats of war to the British. While his talk was tough, Polk knew that war with the British as unwise and unnecessary. Instead, Polk and Buchanan opened up negotiations with the British. Polk once again proposed a division along the 49th parallel, which was immediately rejected by the British ambassador, Richard Pakenham.
After Pakenham's rejection, Polk broke off negotiations. During the election of 1844, the Democratic party's platform called for all of Oregon up to the 54-40 line that marked the southern boundary of Russian Alaska. A new slogan of "54-40 or fight!" became a popular rallying cry among Democrats. Polk continued his hawkish rhetoric, hopeful that it would induce a favorable settlement. As 1845 came to an end, Polk planned to give Britain a one-year notice (as required in the Treaty of 1818) of his intention to terminate the joint occupancy of Oregon. The issue would eventually become resolved in 1846 when the present-day border of the 49th parallel was agreed upon, with all of Vancouver Island becoming British property.
When Congress passed its joint resolution for the annexation of Texas on February 28, 1845, Polk's first major decision in office was whether or not to recall Tyler's emissary to Texas, who delivered an offer of annexation to the Texans. He chose to allow the emissary to continue his mission, with the hope that Texas would accept the offer. Polk's Ambassador to Texas, Andrew Jackson Donelson sought to convince the Texan leaders to accept annexation under the terms proposed by the Tyler administration. Some Texas leaders disliked the terms because they gave public lands to the federal government. However, in July 1845, a convention in Austin, Texas ratified the annexation of Texas and later that year, in December of 1845, Polk signed a resolution annexing Texas. Texas became the 28th state in the union. This would lead to increased tensions with Mexico, which had never recognized Texan independence.
Following the Texan ratification of annexation, Polk began preparations for a potential war with Mexico over Texas. He sent an army led by General Zachary Taylor into Texas. Taylor was ordered to avoid provoking a war, but was told to prepare for war and respond to any Mexican breach of peace. He also sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico to purchase California for $20–40 million. Slidell arrived in Mexico City in December 1845. But the Mexicans refused to negotiate with him. A war with Mexico would begin the following spring.
In his inaugural address, Polk had called upon Congress to re-establish the Independent Treasury System. Under this system, government funds were held in the Treasury and not in banks or other financial institutions. President Van Buren had previously established a similar system, but it had been abolished during the Tyler administration. With the support of Senator Dixon Lewis, the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, Polk was able to push the Independent Treasury Act through Congress. It was signed into law on August 6, 1846. The act provided that the public revenues were to be retained in the Treasury building and in sub-treasuries in various cities, separate from private or state banks, to receive all government funds. The system would remain in place until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913.
Polk had taken an ambivalent position on the tariff during the 1844 campaign in order not to alienate northern votes. Polk was opposed to a high tariff and saw the protection of manufacturing interests as unfair to the south. When he became President, Polk directed Secretary of the Treasury Robert Walker to draft a new and lower tariff, which Polk submitted to Congress. After intense lobbying campaigns by both sides, the bill passed the House. The vote for the bill in the senate was deadlocked and Vice President Dallas was required to break the tie. In 1846, Polk signed the Walker Tariff into law, substantially reducing the rates that had been set by the Whig-backed Tariff of 1842. Polk's lowering of the tariff was popular in the South and West, but was despised by many protectionists in the Northeast, especially in the Vice-President's home state of Pennsylvania. The reduction of tariffs in the United States to a boom in trade with the British.
Polk kept his promise to serve only one term in office. As it was, his intense work ethic and his micromanaging left him exhausted. He lost weight and had deep lines on his face and dark circles under his eyes. He likely contracted cholera in New Orleans, Louisiana, on a goodwill tour of the South after leaving the White House. Polk died of cholera at his new home, Polk Place, in Nashville, Tennessee, on June 15, 1849, three months after leaving office.