Presidential Transitions: John Tyler to James Polk (1844) and the Annexing of Texas
When James K. Polk won the election of 1844, it looked as if outgoing President John Tyler would fail to achieve one of the ultimate goals of his presidency, that being the annexation of Texas. But instead of abandoning his ambitious plan, Tyler took advantage of the transition period between the election and his successor's inauguration, to accomplish what he had previously been unable to do.
John Tyler announced that the annexation of the Republic of Texas was part of his platform soon after becoming president. Texas had declared independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution of 1836. Mexico refused to acknowledge its former region as a sovereign state. Many in Texas pursued joining the Union as a means of enhancing its security, but former Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren were hesitant to add another Southern state, for fear of antagonizing northerners over the possibility of adding another slave state.
John Tyler had no such reluctance. He wanted the addition of the state to be the focal point of his administration. Tyler, who had become president upon the death of William Henry Harrison, had inherited Harrison's cabinet. His Secretary of State was Daniel Webster, and Webster opposed the annexation for the same reason as Jackson and Van Buren. He tried to convince Tyler to focus on Pacific expansionism instead. But Tyler was concerned about the possibility that Great Britain had ideas of adding Texas to its empire and that this would threaten American security as well as weaken the institution of slavery in the United States. If Texas became a British colony, slavery would be prohibited, as it was throughout the British Empire.
In early 1843, Webster and Lord Ashburton, the British Foreign Minister, had negotiated the Webster–Ashburton treaty, which fixed the border between Canada and the United States, declaring what is now Maine to be American territory. Tyler felt that the time was right pursue Texas, but by this time he had alienated the Whig Party and was a President without a party. He saw annexation of Texas as something that would aid in his re-election as President in 1844 as an independent, or even as a Democrat.
Tyler had his political ally Thomas Walker Gilmer, a U.S. Representative from Virginia, publish a letter defending annexation. This was well received in the south. Although Tyler had maintained a cordial relationship with Webster, he knew he would need a Secretary of State who was more sympathetic and supportive of the annexation of Texas. He asked for and received Webster's resignation and appointed Hugh S. Legaré of South Carolina as an interim successor.
Tyler also appointed John C. Spencer as Treasury Secretary and together they removed a number of office holders, and replaced them with pro-annexation partisans. Previously, Tyler was critical of the use of patronage for political purposes, but he now saw this practice as one of his few weapons available to achieve his goal. He got help from political organizer Michael Walsh to build a political machine in New York. Journalist Alexander G. Abell wrote a flattering biography of the president, called "The Life of John Tyler". In return, Abell was appointed as consul to Hawaii. The biography was printed in large quantities and given to postmasters to distribute. Tyler embarked on a nationwide tour in the spring of 1843. All of this was done in order to rehabilitate himself politically. On the tour, Tyler spoke at the dedication of the Bunker Hill Monument in Boston. Shortly after the dedication, Tyler learned of Legaré's sudden death, which caused him to cancel the rest of the tour.
Tyler appointed Abel P. Upshur, a popular Secretary of the Navy and another political ally, as his new Secretary of State. Thomas Gilmer was nominated to fill Upshur's former office. Tyler and Upshur began quietly negotiating with the Texas government. They promised the Texans military protection from Mexico in exchange for a commitment to annexation. Upshur spread rumors of possible British designs on Texas as a strategy to gain support among Northerners, who otherwise would not agree to admission of a new pro-slavery state. In January 1844 Upshur told the Texas government that he had a large majority of senators in favor of annexation. The treaty was finalized in late February.
Tyler suffered another setback on February 28, 1844, when the newly built warship USS Princeton was on ceremonial cruise on the Potomac River, the day after completion of the annexation treaty. Aboard the ship were 400 guests, including Tyler and his cabinet, as was the world's largest naval gun, the "Peacemaker." The gun was fired several times in the afternoon to display its power. The passengers then went downstairs to offer a toast. Later, Captain Robert F. Stockton was asked to fire one more shot. As the guests moved up to the deck, Tyler paused briefly to watch his son-in-law, William Waller, perform a song. Suddenly an explosion was heard from above. The gun had malfunctioned and exploded. Tyler was unhurt, but a number of others were killed instantly, including Gilmer and Upshur, two key cabinet members who were important to his annexation plans.
Also among those killed was Congressman David Gardiner of New York. Gardiner's daughter, Julia, was fainted and was carried to safety by the president himself. She would later become John Tyler's second (and much younger) wife.
The tragedy seemed to make any hope of completing the Texas annexation before the November presidential election unlikely. Tyler appointed former Vice President John C. Calhoun in early March 1844 as his Secretary of State. Tyler's good friend, Virginia Representative Henry A. Wise, offered Calhoun the position, without Tyler's knowledge or approval. Tyler was angry over this, but felt that he could not withdraw Wise's offer without injuring his plans for annexation. However Calhoun was a leading advocate of slavery, and his attempts to get an annexation treaty passed increased resistance from abolitionists and made annexation look more like something motivated by the desire to expand the institution of slavery as well.
The text of the treaty was leaked to the public, and it met with considerable political opposition. It was opposed by the Whigs, (who were opposed to anything that might enhance Tyler's political fortunes) as well as by the opponents of slavery and by those who did not want a war with Mexico. Both Henry Clay and Martin Van Buren, the presumptive nominees respectively for the Whig and Democratic nominations, came out against annexation. Tyler sent the treaty to the Senate for ratification in April 1844, but he did not expect it to pass.
As the election approached, Tyler planned to run as the candidate of a third party, the Democratic-Republicans. The group was largely made up of the office holders and political networks that Tyler had created during his presidency. Pro-Tyler newspapers published editorials promoting his candidacy during the early months of 1844. His supporters campaigned on the slogan "Tyler and Texas!" They held their nominating convention in Baltimore in May 1844, just as the Democratic Party was holding its presidential nomination. The party nominated Tyler for the presidency on May 27, 1844.
The issue of annexation divided Democrats. At their convention, also in Baltimore, Van Buren failed to win the necessary two-thirds majority required for the nomination. On the ninth ballot Democrats settled on former Tennessee Governor and former Speaker of the House James K. Polk, a less prominent candidate, but one who supported annexation.
In June of 1844, as expected, the Whig-controlled Senate rejected Tyler's treaty by a vote of 16–35. Tyler was undaunted and asked Congress to annex Texas by joint resolution rather than by treaty. Former President Andrew Jackson, now a staunch supporter of annexation, advised Polk to welcome Tyler back into the Democratic party and ordered Democratic editors to cease their attacks on Tyler. This seemed to pacify Tyler, who dropped out of the race in August and endorsed Polk for the presidency.
Polk narrowly defeated Clay in the November election. This was seen by Tyler as a mandate for completing the annexation resolution. During the transition, Tyler delivered his annual message to Congress, in which he said: "A controlling majority of the people and a large majority of the states have declared in favor of immediate annexation."
In late February 1845, the House of Representatives (by a substantial margin) and the Senate (by a much closer vote of 27–25) approved a joint resolution offering terms of annexation to Texas. On March 1, three days before the end of his term, Tyler signed the bill into law. Just prior to leaving office, John Tyler attained the satisfaction of achieving the major goal of his presidency, bringing about the annexation of Texas. Texas accepted the terms and entered the union on December 29, 1845, as the 28th state.
John Tyler announced that the annexation of the Republic of Texas was part of his platform soon after becoming president. Texas had declared independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution of 1836. Mexico refused to acknowledge its former region as a sovereign state. Many in Texas pursued joining the Union as a means of enhancing its security, but former Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren were hesitant to add another Southern state, for fear of antagonizing northerners over the possibility of adding another slave state.
John Tyler had no such reluctance. He wanted the addition of the state to be the focal point of his administration. Tyler, who had become president upon the death of William Henry Harrison, had inherited Harrison's cabinet. His Secretary of State was Daniel Webster, and Webster opposed the annexation for the same reason as Jackson and Van Buren. He tried to convince Tyler to focus on Pacific expansionism instead. But Tyler was concerned about the possibility that Great Britain had ideas of adding Texas to its empire and that this would threaten American security as well as weaken the institution of slavery in the United States. If Texas became a British colony, slavery would be prohibited, as it was throughout the British Empire.
In early 1843, Webster and Lord Ashburton, the British Foreign Minister, had negotiated the Webster–Ashburton treaty, which fixed the border between Canada and the United States, declaring what is now Maine to be American territory. Tyler felt that the time was right pursue Texas, but by this time he had alienated the Whig Party and was a President without a party. He saw annexation of Texas as something that would aid in his re-election as President in 1844 as an independent, or even as a Democrat.
Tyler had his political ally Thomas Walker Gilmer, a U.S. Representative from Virginia, publish a letter defending annexation. This was well received in the south. Although Tyler had maintained a cordial relationship with Webster, he knew he would need a Secretary of State who was more sympathetic and supportive of the annexation of Texas. He asked for and received Webster's resignation and appointed Hugh S. Legaré of South Carolina as an interim successor.
Tyler also appointed John C. Spencer as Treasury Secretary and together they removed a number of office holders, and replaced them with pro-annexation partisans. Previously, Tyler was critical of the use of patronage for political purposes, but he now saw this practice as one of his few weapons available to achieve his goal. He got help from political organizer Michael Walsh to build a political machine in New York. Journalist Alexander G. Abell wrote a flattering biography of the president, called "The Life of John Tyler". In return, Abell was appointed as consul to Hawaii. The biography was printed in large quantities and given to postmasters to distribute. Tyler embarked on a nationwide tour in the spring of 1843. All of this was done in order to rehabilitate himself politically. On the tour, Tyler spoke at the dedication of the Bunker Hill Monument in Boston. Shortly after the dedication, Tyler learned of Legaré's sudden death, which caused him to cancel the rest of the tour.
Tyler appointed Abel P. Upshur, a popular Secretary of the Navy and another political ally, as his new Secretary of State. Thomas Gilmer was nominated to fill Upshur's former office. Tyler and Upshur began quietly negotiating with the Texas government. They promised the Texans military protection from Mexico in exchange for a commitment to annexation. Upshur spread rumors of possible British designs on Texas as a strategy to gain support among Northerners, who otherwise would not agree to admission of a new pro-slavery state. In January 1844 Upshur told the Texas government that he had a large majority of senators in favor of annexation. The treaty was finalized in late February.
Tyler suffered another setback on February 28, 1844, when the newly built warship USS Princeton was on ceremonial cruise on the Potomac River, the day after completion of the annexation treaty. Aboard the ship were 400 guests, including Tyler and his cabinet, as was the world's largest naval gun, the "Peacemaker." The gun was fired several times in the afternoon to display its power. The passengers then went downstairs to offer a toast. Later, Captain Robert F. Stockton was asked to fire one more shot. As the guests moved up to the deck, Tyler paused briefly to watch his son-in-law, William Waller, perform a song. Suddenly an explosion was heard from above. The gun had malfunctioned and exploded. Tyler was unhurt, but a number of others were killed instantly, including Gilmer and Upshur, two key cabinet members who were important to his annexation plans.
Also among those killed was Congressman David Gardiner of New York. Gardiner's daughter, Julia, was fainted and was carried to safety by the president himself. She would later become John Tyler's second (and much younger) wife.
The tragedy seemed to make any hope of completing the Texas annexation before the November presidential election unlikely. Tyler appointed former Vice President John C. Calhoun in early March 1844 as his Secretary of State. Tyler's good friend, Virginia Representative Henry A. Wise, offered Calhoun the position, without Tyler's knowledge or approval. Tyler was angry over this, but felt that he could not withdraw Wise's offer without injuring his plans for annexation. However Calhoun was a leading advocate of slavery, and his attempts to get an annexation treaty passed increased resistance from abolitionists and made annexation look more like something motivated by the desire to expand the institution of slavery as well.
The text of the treaty was leaked to the public, and it met with considerable political opposition. It was opposed by the Whigs, (who were opposed to anything that might enhance Tyler's political fortunes) as well as by the opponents of slavery and by those who did not want a war with Mexico. Both Henry Clay and Martin Van Buren, the presumptive nominees respectively for the Whig and Democratic nominations, came out against annexation. Tyler sent the treaty to the Senate for ratification in April 1844, but he did not expect it to pass.
As the election approached, Tyler planned to run as the candidate of a third party, the Democratic-Republicans. The group was largely made up of the office holders and political networks that Tyler had created during his presidency. Pro-Tyler newspapers published editorials promoting his candidacy during the early months of 1844. His supporters campaigned on the slogan "Tyler and Texas!" They held their nominating convention in Baltimore in May 1844, just as the Democratic Party was holding its presidential nomination. The party nominated Tyler for the presidency on May 27, 1844.
The issue of annexation divided Democrats. At their convention, also in Baltimore, Van Buren failed to win the necessary two-thirds majority required for the nomination. On the ninth ballot Democrats settled on former Tennessee Governor and former Speaker of the House James K. Polk, a less prominent candidate, but one who supported annexation.
In June of 1844, as expected, the Whig-controlled Senate rejected Tyler's treaty by a vote of 16–35. Tyler was undaunted and asked Congress to annex Texas by joint resolution rather than by treaty. Former President Andrew Jackson, now a staunch supporter of annexation, advised Polk to welcome Tyler back into the Democratic party and ordered Democratic editors to cease their attacks on Tyler. This seemed to pacify Tyler, who dropped out of the race in August and endorsed Polk for the presidency.
Polk narrowly defeated Clay in the November election. This was seen by Tyler as a mandate for completing the annexation resolution. During the transition, Tyler delivered his annual message to Congress, in which he said: "A controlling majority of the people and a large majority of the states have declared in favor of immediate annexation."
In late February 1845, the House of Representatives (by a substantial margin) and the Senate (by a much closer vote of 27–25) approved a joint resolution offering terms of annexation to Texas. On March 1, three days before the end of his term, Tyler signed the bill into law. Just prior to leaving office, John Tyler attained the satisfaction of achieving the major goal of his presidency, bringing about the annexation of Texas. Texas accepted the terms and entered the union on December 29, 1845, as the 28th state.