The Second Term Curse: Thomas Jefferson's Second Term
Thomas Jefferson served as his nation's first Secretary of State from 1790 to 1793 under President George Washington. Heand Alexander Hamilton are credited (or blamed) for the creation of political parties. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose Hamilton's Federalists. When he was elected President in 1800, Jefferson enjoyed a number of successes during his first term. He aggressively sought to protect his nation's shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. His administration brought about the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the country's territory. As a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration also reduced military forces.
But when Jefferson was reelected in 1804, his second term was beset with difficulties at home. These included the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, the economic pain suffered from diminished foreign trade as the result of the Embargo Act of 1807, and his controversial process of Indian tribe removal in the newly organized Louisiana Territory.
When Jefferson ran for re-election as president in 1804, his former running mate and Vice President Aaron Burr was dropped from the Democratic-Republican ticket. Burr ran unsuccessfully for the position of Governor of New York in an April 1804 election. Following his defeat, Burr challenged Federalist Party leader Alexander Hamilton to a duel. Burr accused Hamilton of having made defamatory remarks. On July 11, 1804, Burr mortally wounded Hamilton in a duel at Weehawken, New Jersey. Burr was indicted for Hamilton's murder in New York and New Jersey causing him to flee to Georgia. The two Burr indictments were ultimately not proceeded with, largely due to Burr's absence.
After Aaron Burr's defeat and duel, the British ambassador claimed that Burr was embarking on a scheme to "effect a separation of the western part of the United States". In late 1806, Jefferson learned that Burr had been rumored to be plotting with some western states to secede and form independent empire, and also to raise a filibuster to conquer Mexico. There were reports that Burr was recruiting men, stocking arms, and building boats. The American general in New Orleans, James Wilkinson, was also working for the Spanish government. He reported to Jefferson that Burr and others were illegally plotting to take over Spanish holdings. In a report to Congress January 1807, Jefferson declared Burr's guilt "placed beyond question". In March 1807, Burr was arrested in New Orleans and placed on trial for treason in Richmond, Virginia, with Chief Justice John Marshall presiding. On June 13, Jefferson was subpoenaed by Burr to release documents that were believed to be beneficial to Burr's defense. Jefferson chose to release only a few of the documents Burr had requested. He invoked executive privilege. Jefferson refused to appear at Burr's trial. A weak government case led to Burr's acquittal, much to Jefferson's disgust. However Burr's reputation was ruined he was never able to mount another political comeback. Burr later died on his Staten Island residence in October 1836.
American trade had increased greatly after the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in the early 1790s. This was due to the fact that American shipping was allowed to act as neutral carriers with European powers. The British tolerated U.S. trade with mainland France and French colonies after the signing of the Jay Treaty in 1794. But relations with Britain deteriorated after 1805. Needing sailors for its war with France, the British Royal Navy seized hundreds of American ships and impressed 6,000 sailors from them, angering Americans. The British began to enforce a blockade of Europe, ending their policy of tolerance towards American shipping. The British blockade was very harmful to American commerce and provoked immense anger throughout the nation. Jefferson knew that the nation was not strong enough to go to war with the British. At Jefferson's urging, Congress passed the Non-importation Act, which restricted many British imports.
Tensions with Britain heightened due to the Chesapeake–Leopard affair, a June 1807 naval confrontation between an American ship and a British ship that ended in the death or impressment of several American sailors. The French also began to seize ships trading with the British, leaving American shipping vulnerable to attacks by both of the major naval powers. In response to attacks on American shipping, Congress passed the Embargo Act in 1807, which was designed to force Britain and France into respecting U.S. neutrality by cutting off all American shipping to Britain or France. But instead many Americans began to turn to smuggling in order to ship goods to Europe. Jefferson used the military to enforce the embargo. Imports and exports fell immensely, and the embargo proved to be especially unpopular in New England. In March 1809, Congress replaced the embargo with the Non-Intercourse Act, which allowed trade with nations aside from Britain and France. Jefferson's embargo proved to be ineffective and harmful to American interests. Jefferson attributed the failure of the embargo to selfish traders and merchants. He later maintained that, had the embargo been widely observed, it would have avoided war in 1812.
Jefferson designed an assimilation policy for indigenous tribes, known as his "civilization program". Jefferson proposed that Indian tribes should make federal purchases by credit holding their lands as collateral for repayment. He he became increasingly skeptical of assimilation efforts, and began calling for white settlement of the western territories over peaceful assimilation. Where Native tribes resisted assimilation, Jefferson believed that these tribes should be forcefully relocated and sent west. In a letter to Alexander von Humboldt in 1813, Jefferson wrote:
You know, my friend, the benevolent plan we were pursuing here for the happiness of the aboriginal inhabitants in our vicinities. We spared nothing to keep them at peace with one another. To teach them agriculture and the rudiments of the most necessary arts, and to encourage industry by establishing among them separate property. In this way they would have been enabled to subsist and multiply on a moderate scale of landed possession. They would have mixed their blood with ours, and been amalgamated and identified with us within no distant period of time. On the commencement of our present war, we pressed on them the observance of peace and neutrality, but the interested and unprincipled policy of England has defeated all our labors for the salvation of these unfortunate people. They have seduced the greater part of the tribes within our neighborhood, to take up the hatchet against us, and the cruel massacres they have committed on the women and children of our frontiers taken by surprise, will oblige us now to pursue them to extermination, or drive them to new seats beyond our reach.
Jefferson instructed his Secretary of War, General Henry Dearborn (who was the primary government official responsible for Indian affairs): "if we are constrained to lift the hatchet against any tribe, we will never lay it down until that tribe is exterminated, or driven beyond the Mississippi." As president, he reached an agreement with the state of Georgia that if Georgia was to release its legal claims to discovery in lands to the west, then the U.S. military would help forcefully expel the Cherokee people from Georgia. At the time, the Cherokee had a treaty with the United States government which guaranteed them the right to their lands, which was violated in Jefferson's deal with Georgia.
Andrew Jackson is often credited with initiating Indian Removal, because Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1831 during his presidency, and also because of his personal involvement in the forceful removal of many Eastern Indian tribes. But the plan that Jackson was implementing was one laid out by Jefferson in a series of private letters that began in 1804. Jefferson was unable to implement the plan during his own presidency.
But when Jefferson was reelected in 1804, his second term was beset with difficulties at home. These included the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, the economic pain suffered from diminished foreign trade as the result of the Embargo Act of 1807, and his controversial process of Indian tribe removal in the newly organized Louisiana Territory.
When Jefferson ran for re-election as president in 1804, his former running mate and Vice President Aaron Burr was dropped from the Democratic-Republican ticket. Burr ran unsuccessfully for the position of Governor of New York in an April 1804 election. Following his defeat, Burr challenged Federalist Party leader Alexander Hamilton to a duel. Burr accused Hamilton of having made defamatory remarks. On July 11, 1804, Burr mortally wounded Hamilton in a duel at Weehawken, New Jersey. Burr was indicted for Hamilton's murder in New York and New Jersey causing him to flee to Georgia. The two Burr indictments were ultimately not proceeded with, largely due to Burr's absence.
After Aaron Burr's defeat and duel, the British ambassador claimed that Burr was embarking on a scheme to "effect a separation of the western part of the United States". In late 1806, Jefferson learned that Burr had been rumored to be plotting with some western states to secede and form independent empire, and also to raise a filibuster to conquer Mexico. There were reports that Burr was recruiting men, stocking arms, and building boats. The American general in New Orleans, James Wilkinson, was also working for the Spanish government. He reported to Jefferson that Burr and others were illegally plotting to take over Spanish holdings. In a report to Congress January 1807, Jefferson declared Burr's guilt "placed beyond question". In March 1807, Burr was arrested in New Orleans and placed on trial for treason in Richmond, Virginia, with Chief Justice John Marshall presiding. On June 13, Jefferson was subpoenaed by Burr to release documents that were believed to be beneficial to Burr's defense. Jefferson chose to release only a few of the documents Burr had requested. He invoked executive privilege. Jefferson refused to appear at Burr's trial. A weak government case led to Burr's acquittal, much to Jefferson's disgust. However Burr's reputation was ruined he was never able to mount another political comeback. Burr later died on his Staten Island residence in October 1836.
American trade had increased greatly after the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in the early 1790s. This was due to the fact that American shipping was allowed to act as neutral carriers with European powers. The British tolerated U.S. trade with mainland France and French colonies after the signing of the Jay Treaty in 1794. But relations with Britain deteriorated after 1805. Needing sailors for its war with France, the British Royal Navy seized hundreds of American ships and impressed 6,000 sailors from them, angering Americans. The British began to enforce a blockade of Europe, ending their policy of tolerance towards American shipping. The British blockade was very harmful to American commerce and provoked immense anger throughout the nation. Jefferson knew that the nation was not strong enough to go to war with the British. At Jefferson's urging, Congress passed the Non-importation Act, which restricted many British imports.
Tensions with Britain heightened due to the Chesapeake–Leopard affair, a June 1807 naval confrontation between an American ship and a British ship that ended in the death or impressment of several American sailors. The French also began to seize ships trading with the British, leaving American shipping vulnerable to attacks by both of the major naval powers. In response to attacks on American shipping, Congress passed the Embargo Act in 1807, which was designed to force Britain and France into respecting U.S. neutrality by cutting off all American shipping to Britain or France. But instead many Americans began to turn to smuggling in order to ship goods to Europe. Jefferson used the military to enforce the embargo. Imports and exports fell immensely, and the embargo proved to be especially unpopular in New England. In March 1809, Congress replaced the embargo with the Non-Intercourse Act, which allowed trade with nations aside from Britain and France. Jefferson's embargo proved to be ineffective and harmful to American interests. Jefferson attributed the failure of the embargo to selfish traders and merchants. He later maintained that, had the embargo been widely observed, it would have avoided war in 1812.
Jefferson designed an assimilation policy for indigenous tribes, known as his "civilization program". Jefferson proposed that Indian tribes should make federal purchases by credit holding their lands as collateral for repayment. He he became increasingly skeptical of assimilation efforts, and began calling for white settlement of the western territories over peaceful assimilation. Where Native tribes resisted assimilation, Jefferson believed that these tribes should be forcefully relocated and sent west. In a letter to Alexander von Humboldt in 1813, Jefferson wrote:
You know, my friend, the benevolent plan we were pursuing here for the happiness of the aboriginal inhabitants in our vicinities. We spared nothing to keep them at peace with one another. To teach them agriculture and the rudiments of the most necessary arts, and to encourage industry by establishing among them separate property. In this way they would have been enabled to subsist and multiply on a moderate scale of landed possession. They would have mixed their blood with ours, and been amalgamated and identified with us within no distant period of time. On the commencement of our present war, we pressed on them the observance of peace and neutrality, but the interested and unprincipled policy of England has defeated all our labors for the salvation of these unfortunate people. They have seduced the greater part of the tribes within our neighborhood, to take up the hatchet against us, and the cruel massacres they have committed on the women and children of our frontiers taken by surprise, will oblige us now to pursue them to extermination, or drive them to new seats beyond our reach.
Jefferson instructed his Secretary of War, General Henry Dearborn (who was the primary government official responsible for Indian affairs): "if we are constrained to lift the hatchet against any tribe, we will never lay it down until that tribe is exterminated, or driven beyond the Mississippi." As president, he reached an agreement with the state of Georgia that if Georgia was to release its legal claims to discovery in lands to the west, then the U.S. military would help forcefully expel the Cherokee people from Georgia. At the time, the Cherokee had a treaty with the United States government which guaranteed them the right to their lands, which was violated in Jefferson's deal with Georgia.
Andrew Jackson is often credited with initiating Indian Removal, because Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1831 during his presidency, and also because of his personal involvement in the forceful removal of many Eastern Indian tribes. But the plan that Jackson was implementing was one laid out by Jefferson in a series of private letters that began in 1804. Jefferson was unable to implement the plan during his own presidency.