Lincoln and the Beginning of the Civil War
After the fall of Fort Sumter, Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war, and devising a strategy to put down the rebellion. Whereas James Buchanan had shied away from the problem of southern secession, Lincoln made his reputation as a commander-in-chief who faced his biggest challenges head on. There was not universal support for war against the seceding states, and Lincoln faced a battle on the home front as he had to address those in the north who did not support the war. He also wanted to retain within the union the slave states that had chosen not to join the Confederacy.
Lincoln attacked the problem first by expanding his war powers. He directed that there be a blockade on all Confederate shipping ports. He disbursed funds even before they were appropriated by Congress. He suspended the writ of habeas corpus (the power of a court to effect the release of someone in the custody of the state) and he arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln had the support of Congress for all of these actions and he also used the press as a means of getting the northern public on his side.
Lincoln was a master tactician when it came to using public opinion as both a political weapon as well as a military aid. He used the press not only to get his message out in an era before electronic mass communication, but also to prevent his opponents from having similar access to the hearts and minds of the people. He did this through the use of military censorship, control of the post office and telegraphs, and through the use of patronage.
At the time, New York City was the media capital of the western world. The big three media moguls in New York City were Horace Greeley of the Tribune, James Gordon Bennett of the Herald, and Henry Raymond of the Times. Each had interesting life stories and personalities. There were also many other influential newspapers in other parts of the country, including in Washington D.C., Philadelphia and in Lincoln's home state of Illinois, where Lincoln purchased a newspaper printed in German to bolster his electoral chances in that state. Lincoln used censorship of those journalists and newspapers whose views did not accord with the administration or its prosecution of the war, justifying the practice as being one which saved lives by shortening the war (or more accurately, but not enabling Lincoln's enemies to prolong the war by raising the spirits of those who opposed the Union). Many newspapers that were critical of the Union cause were censored of shut down. Their reporters were treated differently depending on how they reported from the battlefield, and some editors were even jailed for their anti-administration views. Often it was members of the public, through mob actions, who took it upon themselves to violently censor the newspapers. Freedom of the press was a casualty of the Civil War, and with the benefit of hindsight, many debate whether or not this was justified under the circumstances of the time.
Lincoln also used the press as a means of getting his message to the people in a era before the ability to speak directly to the masses existed (i.e. at a time before radio and television.) For example, when emancipation became an issue, Lincoln wrote his famous response to Horace Greeley's "Prayer of Twenty Millions" editorial, which accused Lincoln of using his abolitionist leanings as the reason for the death of so many young men in the war. In response, Lincoln famously wrote "If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that".
Lincoln realized early on in the war that he would require bipartisan support for his war strategy to succeed, but this was difficult, given the differences which existed both between and within the two parties. He tried to appoint both Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Strict constitutionalists criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue, while Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort. The law meant little practically, but it did win political support from those in favor of abolishing slavery.
Lincoln also had to contend with reinforcing Union sympathies in the border slave states. He also wanted to prevent the war from becoming an international conflict. In late August 1861, General John C. Frémont, who had been the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, issued a proclamation of martial law in Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be court-martialed and shot. He also ordered that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed. Frémont took these steps on his own authority and without consulting with Lincoln. The general was already facing charges of negligence in his command of the Department of the West, as well as allegations of fraud and corruption. Lincoln overruled Frémont's order He. worried that Fremont's emancipation was too political and that it might drive the border states into the Confederate cause. The order was not neither militarily necessary and likely not legal. When Lincoln did this, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri grew by more than 40,000 troops.
On the international front, Lincoln had to address an incident known as the Trent Affair in late 1861. The U.S. Navy had illegally intercepted a British merchant ship, the Trent, and seized two Confederate envoys. Britain protested the incident and Lincoln was worried that this might cause the British to support the Confederacy. In spite of the fact that the seizure of the two Confederates was a popular move for Lincoln within his base, he resolved the issue by releasing the two men. Lincoln's Secretary of State, William Seward was seen as too hardline with the British, so Lincoln also turned to Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and an expert in British diplomacy, to make peace with the British.
To learn technical military terms, Lincoln read extensively. He borrowed General Henry Halleck's book, Elements of Military Art and Science, from the Library of Congress. He also monitored the telegraph reports coming into the War Department in Washington, D.C. Lincoln selected generals based on their past success, but he also did not ignore what state and party they were from.
In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced his Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, with Edwin Stanton. Stanton was a Democrat, but he was also a strong Unionist and a man whose views accorded with the Radical Republican faction. Stanton worked more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official.
In terms of war strategy, Lincoln set two priorities: (1) to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and (2) to conduct an aggressive war effort to achieve a prompt, decisive victory. Some major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days. Lincoln met with his cabinet twice a week. He learned of the importance of controlling strategic points, such as the Mississippi River.
It is remarkable, given the division within the nation, that Lincoln was able to keep the non-confederate states united, keep the border states from joining the confederacy and eventually issue the Emancipation Proclamation. It is a testament to the strength of Lincoln's leadership abilities, which appear even greater when compared with the do-nothing approach taken by his predecessor.
Lincoln attacked the problem first by expanding his war powers. He directed that there be a blockade on all Confederate shipping ports. He disbursed funds even before they were appropriated by Congress. He suspended the writ of habeas corpus (the power of a court to effect the release of someone in the custody of the state) and he arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln had the support of Congress for all of these actions and he also used the press as a means of getting the northern public on his side.
Lincoln was a master tactician when it came to using public opinion as both a political weapon as well as a military aid. He used the press not only to get his message out in an era before electronic mass communication, but also to prevent his opponents from having similar access to the hearts and minds of the people. He did this through the use of military censorship, control of the post office and telegraphs, and through the use of patronage.
At the time, New York City was the media capital of the western world. The big three media moguls in New York City were Horace Greeley of the Tribune, James Gordon Bennett of the Herald, and Henry Raymond of the Times. Each had interesting life stories and personalities. There were also many other influential newspapers in other parts of the country, including in Washington D.C., Philadelphia and in Lincoln's home state of Illinois, where Lincoln purchased a newspaper printed in German to bolster his electoral chances in that state. Lincoln used censorship of those journalists and newspapers whose views did not accord with the administration or its prosecution of the war, justifying the practice as being one which saved lives by shortening the war (or more accurately, but not enabling Lincoln's enemies to prolong the war by raising the spirits of those who opposed the Union). Many newspapers that were critical of the Union cause were censored of shut down. Their reporters were treated differently depending on how they reported from the battlefield, and some editors were even jailed for their anti-administration views. Often it was members of the public, through mob actions, who took it upon themselves to violently censor the newspapers. Freedom of the press was a casualty of the Civil War, and with the benefit of hindsight, many debate whether or not this was justified under the circumstances of the time.
Lincoln also used the press as a means of getting his message to the people in a era before the ability to speak directly to the masses existed (i.e. at a time before radio and television.) For example, when emancipation became an issue, Lincoln wrote his famous response to Horace Greeley's "Prayer of Twenty Millions" editorial, which accused Lincoln of using his abolitionist leanings as the reason for the death of so many young men in the war. In response, Lincoln famously wrote "If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that".
Lincoln realized early on in the war that he would require bipartisan support for his war strategy to succeed, but this was difficult, given the differences which existed both between and within the two parties. He tried to appoint both Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Strict constitutionalists criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue, while Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort. The law meant little practically, but it did win political support from those in favor of abolishing slavery.
Lincoln also had to contend with reinforcing Union sympathies in the border slave states. He also wanted to prevent the war from becoming an international conflict. In late August 1861, General John C. Frémont, who had been the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, issued a proclamation of martial law in Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be court-martialed and shot. He also ordered that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed. Frémont took these steps on his own authority and without consulting with Lincoln. The general was already facing charges of negligence in his command of the Department of the West, as well as allegations of fraud and corruption. Lincoln overruled Frémont's order He. worried that Fremont's emancipation was too political and that it might drive the border states into the Confederate cause. The order was not neither militarily necessary and likely not legal. When Lincoln did this, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri grew by more than 40,000 troops.
On the international front, Lincoln had to address an incident known as the Trent Affair in late 1861. The U.S. Navy had illegally intercepted a British merchant ship, the Trent, and seized two Confederate envoys. Britain protested the incident and Lincoln was worried that this might cause the British to support the Confederacy. In spite of the fact that the seizure of the two Confederates was a popular move for Lincoln within his base, he resolved the issue by releasing the two men. Lincoln's Secretary of State, William Seward was seen as too hardline with the British, so Lincoln also turned to Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and an expert in British diplomacy, to make peace with the British.
To learn technical military terms, Lincoln read extensively. He borrowed General Henry Halleck's book, Elements of Military Art and Science, from the Library of Congress. He also monitored the telegraph reports coming into the War Department in Washington, D.C. Lincoln selected generals based on their past success, but he also did not ignore what state and party they were from.
In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced his Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, with Edwin Stanton. Stanton was a Democrat, but he was also a strong Unionist and a man whose views accorded with the Radical Republican faction. Stanton worked more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official.
In terms of war strategy, Lincoln set two priorities: (1) to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and (2) to conduct an aggressive war effort to achieve a prompt, decisive victory. Some major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days. Lincoln met with his cabinet twice a week. He learned of the importance of controlling strategic points, such as the Mississippi River.
It is remarkable, given the division within the nation, that Lincoln was able to keep the non-confederate states united, keep the border states from joining the confederacy and eventually issue the Emancipation Proclamation. It is a testament to the strength of Lincoln's leadership abilities, which appear even greater when compared with the do-nothing approach taken by his predecessor.